Tr.MIKE: EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

1. Distinguish between the following terms as used in Educational Guidance and Counseling:

i. Vocation and Avocation

ii. Guidance and Counseling

iii. Modeling and Flooding

iv. Empathy and Congruence

v. Theory and therapy

vi. Assertiveness training and modelling

vii. Life skill and counselling skills

viii. Ethics and professionalism

i. Vocation and Avocation

Vocation: A person's main occupation or profession, especially one for which they feel specially suited or trained (e.g., teaching, medicine). It involves long-term career commitment and earning a livelihood.
Avocation: A hobby or minor occupation pursued outside one's main work, often for pleasure (e.g., painting, playing guitar).

ii. Guidance and Counseling

Guidance: A broad process that helps individuals make important choices (educational, vocational, personal) by providing relevant information and suggestions.
Counseling: A deeper, more personal interaction where a trained counselor helps individuals understand and resolve emotional, social, or psychological issues.

iii. Modeling and Flooding

Modeling: A behavior modification technique where individuals learn by observing and imitating others (e.g., a student emulating a confident speaker).
Flooding: A therapeutic technique used to treat phobias or anxiety by exposing the person to their fear at full intensity for a prolonged time without gradual buildup.

iv. Empathy and Congruence

Empathy: The counselor's ability to understand and share the feelings of the client, putting themselves in the client's shoes.
Congruence: The counselor's authenticity and consistency between their thoughts, feelings, and behavior – being genuine in the therapeutic relationship.

v. Theory and Therapy

Theory: A conceptual framework or system of ideas used to understand behavior and guide counseling practices (e.g., cognitive-behavioral theory).
Therapy: The application of techniques and strategies derived from theories to help clients resolve psychological or emotional problems (e.g., CBT sessions).

vi. Assertiveness Training and Modeling

Assertiveness Training: A counseling technique aimed at helping individuals express their thoughts, feelings, and rights confidently without being aggressive.
Modeling: As above, involves learning by watching and imitating others; in assertiveness training, it is often used to show examples of assertive behavior.

vii. Life Skills and Counseling Skills

Life Skills: Abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that enable individuals to deal effectively with everyday life challenges (e.g., decision-making, communication, problem-solving).
Counseling Skills: Specific techniques and interpersonal skills used by counselors (e.g., active listening, questioning, paraphrasing) to facilitate client self-understanding and growth.

viii. Ethics and Professionalism

Ethics: Moral principles that govern the counselor’s conduct, such as confidentiality, informed consent, and respect for client autonomy.
Professionalism: The conduct, aims, or qualities that characterize a professional; includes adherence to ethical codes, competence, responsibility, and respectful behavior.

2. Deduce three conditions under which referral services are necessary in School Counseling.

Referral services in school counseling are essential when a student's needs go beyond the scope, expertise, or legal boundaries of the school counselor. Here are the key conditions under which referral services are necessary:

1. Mental Health Issues Beyond School Counseling Scope

Severe depression, suicidal ideation, self-harm
Psychotic behavior or hallucinations
Substance abuse and addiction
Eating disorders (e.g., anorexia, bulimia)

These conditions require diagnosis and treatment by psychologists, psychiatrists, or other mental health professionals.

2. Suspected Cases of Abuse or Neglect

Signs of physical, emotional, or sexual abuse
Neglect or unsafe home environments

Legal and ethical guidelines require school counselors to report and refer to child protective services or law enforcement.

3. Learning Disabilities or Developmental Disorders

Dyslexia, ADHD, autism spectrum disorders, etc.
Students struggling academically despite interventions

Referral to educational psychologists or special education experts is needed for proper assessment and intervention planning.

4. Medical or Health-Related Issues

Chronic illness affecting learning or behavior
Unexplained physical symptoms

Referrals to school nurses, doctors, or health specialists ensure proper diagnosis and care.

5. Career and Vocational Guidance Needs

Specialized vocational assessments or training
Interest in career paths not supported by school programs

Referral to career guidance centers or vocational institutions is appropriate.

6. Family or Social Problems Requiring External Support

Divorce, grief, domestic violence
Homelessness, poverty, or social instability

External social services or family counseling may be required to support the student holistically.

7. Legal or Behavioral Issues

Involvement with the juvenile justice system
Chronic behavioral problems disrupting school functioning

Referral to legal aid, probation officers, or behavior specialists may be necessary.

8. Lack of Progress Despite School-Based Interventions

When counseling or interventions have not yielded expected outcomes
When specialized therapy is needed (e.g., trauma-focused CBT)

Referral ensures the student receives more intensive or specialized care.

Summary:

Referral is necessary when:

The problem is beyond the counselor’s expertise
There's a need for medical, psychological, or legal intervention
The student’s safety or well-being is at risk
Specialized diagnostic or therapeutic services are required

3. What conclusions can you draw from silence during counseling?

Silence during counseling can mean different things depending on the situation. Here are some common conclusions you can draw from silence in a counseling session:

Processing and Reflection
The client may be thinking deeply about what was said or reflecting on their feelings and experiences.
Emotional Overwhelm
The client might feel overwhelmed, sad, anxious, or unsure how to express their emotions.
Discomfort or Resistance
Silence can indicate discomfort, fear, or reluctance to talk about certain topics.
Testing the Counselor
Sometimes, clients use silence to see how the counselor responds — whether they are patient and supportive.
Need for Support or Encouragement
The client may feel stuck and need gentle prompts to continue sharing.
Cultural or Personality Differences
Some people naturally communicate less or value silence more, so it could simply be part of their style.
Therapeutic Pause
Silence can be a positive, intentional pause that allows emotions to settle or insights to form.

In summary, silence is a powerful part of counseling that can indicate many things — from reflection and emotional processing to discomfort or testing the relationship. It’s important for counselors to be patient, observe nonverbal cues, and respond with empathy rather than rushing to fill the silence.

4. Mention six signs that teacher counselors may use to recognize trauma in an adolescent.

Here are six signs that teacher counselors may use to recognize trauma in an adolescent:

1. Changes in Behavior
Sudden withdrawal, aggression, irritability, or oppositional behavior that is unusual for the student.

2. Academic Decline
Noticeable drop in grades, lack of concentration, or loss of interest in schoolwork and activities.

3. Emotional Outbursts or Mood Swings
Frequent crying, anger, anxiety, or extreme mood changes without clear triggers.

4. Physical Symptoms
Complaints of headaches, stomachaches, fatigue, or unexplained aches and pains.

5. Sleep Disturbances
Difficulty falling asleep, nightmares, or excessive tiredness during the day.

6. Social Withdrawal
Avoidance of peers, loss of friendships, or reluctance to participate in group activities.

5. Peer counselors play a very important role in a school counseling programme. Describe four qualities that they ought to possess.

Here are the qualities peer counselors ought to possess, in point form:

· Good listening skills to attentively understand their peers without interrupting.

· Empathy to genuinely understand and share the feelings of others.

· Ability to maintain confidentiality, ensuring peers’ privacy is respected.

· Approachability and friendliness to create a comfortable and trusting environment.

· Non-judgmental attitude to encourage openness and honest communication.

· Responsibility to take their role seriously and refer issues beyond their capacity.

6. Describe four roles of a teacher in counselling.

Here are the key roles of a teacher in counseling:

· Listener: Teachers provide a safe space for students to express their feelings and concerns, listening attentively and without judgment.

· Supporter: They offer emotional support and encouragement, helping students feel understood and valued.

· Observer: Teachers observe students’ behavior and emotional changes, identifying signs of distress or problems that may need further attention.

· Guide: They help students explore options, make decisions, and develop problem-solving skills.

· Referral Agent: When issues exceed their expertise, teachers refer students to professional counselors or other specialists.

· Role Model: Teachers demonstrate positive behavior, communication skills, and coping strategies that students can emulate.

· Motivator: They encourage students to set goals and work towards personal and academic growth.

Explain qualities of a good counselor Empathy is one of the most important qualities of a good counselor. It involves the ability to genuinely understand and share the feelings of the client. When counselors show empathy, clients feel heard and accepted, which helps build a trusting relationship essential for effective counseling.

Active listening skills are crucial for a counselor. This means fully concentrating on what the client is saying, understanding their message, and responding thoughtfully without interrupting or making premature judgments. Active listening helps clients feel valued and encourages them to open up more.

A good counselor must be non-judgmental. They create a safe and accepting environment where clients can share their thoughts and feelings without fear of criticism or rejection. This openness fosters honesty and deeper exploration of issues.

Confidentiality is key to building trust in counseling. Clients need to be assured that their private information will not be shared outside the counseling sessions unless there is a risk of harm to themselves or others. Respecting confidentiality encourages clients to be more open.

Patience and tolerance are essential qualities because change often takes time. Counselors need to be patient with clients’ progress and tolerant of their struggles, allowing them to grow and heal at their own pace without pressure.

Effective communication skills help counselors convey understanding, ask insightful questions, and guide clients through the counseling process. Clear communication ensures that the counselor and client are on the same page and can work together effectively.

Lastly, self-awareness is important for counselors to recognize their own biases, emotions, and triggers. By being aware of themselves, counselors can prevent their personal feelings from interfering with the counseling process and maintain professional boundaries.

7. Explain the importance of peer counseling in school.

· Provides students with a supportive and relatable source of help since peer counselors are fellow students.

· Peer counselors understand the challenges and pressures their peers face, making it easier for students to open up.

· Creates a safe environment where students can share personal, social, or academic issues without fear of judgment.

· Helps to reduce the stigma associated with seeking help, encouraging more students to seek support.

· Promotes positive communication, problem-solving, and empathy skills, contributing to a healthier school climate.

· Enables peer counselors to identify problems early and refer peers to professional counselors for timely intervention.

· Empowers students to support one another and fosters a sense of community within the school.

· Enhances the overall effectiveness of the school’s counseling program.

8. Discuss relevance of school-based guidance and counseling.

School-based guidance and counseling is highly relevant and plays a vital role in supporting students' academic, personal, social, and career development. It helps create a well-rounded learning environment where students can thrive both emotionally and intellectually.

One major relevance of school-based guidance and counseling is that it supports students' academic achievement. Counselors help students set academic goals, improve study habits, manage time, and deal with learning difficulties. They also identify learners with special needs and ensure they get appropriate support.

It is also essential in promoting personal and emotional development. Many students face challenges such as stress, anxiety, peer pressure, family conflicts, or low self-esteem. School counselors offer a safe space for students to express their feelings, learn coping strategies, and develop emotional resilience.

School-based counseling is also key in guiding students in career planning and decision-making. Through career guidance, students explore their interests, strengths, and available opportunities, which helps them make informed choices about subject selection, further education, or vocational training.

Furthermore, guidance and counseling contribute to improving discipline and behavior management in schools. Counselors work with students to understand the reasons behind misconduct and teach positive behavior, conflict resolution, and decision-making skills.

It also fosters healthy relationships and enhances social skills. Students learn how to communicate effectively, show empathy, and build respectful relationships with peers and teachers, which reduces bullying and social conflict.

Lastly, school-based guidance and counseling play a role in early identification and intervention for students experiencing psychological, emotional, or behavioral issues. Timely support helps prevent these problems from escalating and affecting the student’s well-being or academic progress.

In conclusion, school-based guidance and counseling are crucial for the holistic development of students. They prepare learners not only for academic success but also for responsible citizenship and a fulfilling life.

9. Describe three factors that led to the development of vocational counseling in the USA.

One major factor was the Industrial Revolution, which brought rapid industrialization and urbanization in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. As factories and industries expanded, there was a growing demand for workers with different skills. Many people moved from rural areas to cities in search of work, creating a need for organized support to help individuals choose suitable careers. This shift highlighted the importance of guiding individuals to match their interests and abilities with available job opportunities.

Another key factor was the problem of child labor and the need for educational reform. Many children were leaving school early to work in poor conditions with little to no career planning. Education reformers began advocating for keeping children in school longer and preparing them for productive adult lives. Vocational counseling emerged as a way to help students make informed career choices and connect their education to future employment, thus reducing school dropouts and unskilled labor.

A third important factor was the influence of Frank Parsons, often referred to as the "father of vocational guidance." In 1908, he founded the Vocational Bureau in Boston and introduced a structured approach to career counseling. His model emphasized understanding an individual's abilities and interests, learning about different occupations, and using logical reasoning to make career decisions. His work laid the foundation for formal vocational counseling in schools and communities.

These factors combined to shape the development of vocational counseling as a necessary service to guide individuals toward meaningful and suitable employment in a changing economic and social environment

10. Justify the teaching of Guidance and Counseling to prospective teachers.

Teaching Guidance and Counseling to prospective teachers is essential and can be justified on several important grounds:

1. Enhancing Holistic Student Support
Teachers are often the first adults students turn to when facing personal, social, or academic challenges. Training in guidance and counseling equips future teachers with the skills to recognize student needs beyond academics and offer meaningful support or refer them to professionals when necessary.

2. Promoting Positive Classroom Behavior and Discipline
Through guidance and counseling training, teachers learn how to manage behavior more effectively by understanding the underlying causes of student misconduct. This promotes positive discipline strategies and fosters a more respectful and supportive classroom environment.

3. Supporting Academic and Career Development
Teachers play a key role in helping students set academic goals and make informed career choices. A background in counseling allows them to guide students in making realistic and appropriate educational and vocational decisions, especially during critical stages like subject selection or transitions to higher education.

4. Early Identification and Intervention
With basic counseling knowledge, teachers can identify early signs of emotional, behavioral, or learning difficulties in students. Early intervention increases the chances of successful outcomes and reduces long-term negative effects on a child’s education and well-being.

5. Building Strong Teacher-Student Relationships
Counseling skills such as active listening, empathy, and non-judgmental communication help teachers build trust and healthy relationships with students. This creates a classroom atmosphere where students feel safe, understood, and motivated to learn.

6. Supporting Peer Counseling Programs
Teachers with counseling knowledge can effectively mentor and supervise peer counselors, ensuring that school-based support programs run effectively and ethically.

7. Enhancing Professionalism and Teacher Effectiveness
Guidance and counseling knowledge fosters greater self-awareness, emotional intelligence, and ethical conduct in teachers, making them more effective educators and role models.

In summary, teaching guidance and counseling to prospective teachers prepares them to meet the diverse needs of students, improve classroom dynamics, and contribute meaningfully to the personal and academic growth of learners.

11. Career guidance and counseling is one of the key areas concerns to an adolescent. With this cue in mind.

a. Describe how you can apply Donald Super’s Self-Concept theory to help the adolescent select a career.

Applying Donald Super’s Self-Concept Theory to Help Adolescents Select a Career

Donald Super’s Self-Concept Theory of career development emphasizes that career choices are an expression of an individual's self-concept — the way they see themselves in relation to the world and their life roles. Super believed that career development is a lifelong process that evolves as the individual’s self-understanding grows. For adolescents, this theory can be particularly useful because they are in the process of discovering who they are and how they fit into society.

To apply this theory in helping adolescents select a career, a teacher or counselor can take the following steps:

Explore the Adolescent's Self-Concept
Begin by helping the adolescent reflect on their interests, values, abilities, personality traits, and aspirations. This can be done through career interest inventories, self-assessment tools, personality tests, and guided discussions. The goal is to build a clearer picture of how the student sees themselves.
Encourage Self-Exploration Through Roles and Experiences
Super believed individuals develop their self-concept through experiences in different life roles (e.g., student, friend, team member). Encourage adolescents to participate in diverse activities such as clubs, volunteer work, internships, or job shadowing. These experiences allow them to experiment with different roles and better understand which careers align with their evolving self-image.
Relate Career Options to Self-Concept
Once the adolescent has more clarity about their self-concept, guide them in exploring careers that match their personal characteristics. Help them examine how their skills, interests, and values align with specific occupations, and how those careers might support their goals and lifestyle.
Guide Them Through Super’s Career Stages
According to Super, adolescents are typically in the Exploration Stage (ages 14–24), where they try out various options and begin to narrow their choices. Encourage them to research careers, take introductory courses, or engage in short-term training opportunities to further refine their interests and choices.
Support Flexibility and Growth
Help the adolescent understand that career development is a lifelong process and their self-concept may change over time. Emphasize that it’s okay to revise career goals as they gain more experience and insight.
Assist in Goal Setting and Planning
Use the information gathered from their self-concept and experiences to help them set realistic educational and career goals. This includes selecting appropriate subjects in school, considering higher education or vocational paths, and developing a step-by-step action plan toward their desired career.

In summary, Donald Super’s Self-Concept Theory can guide adolescents to choose careers that reflect who they are and who they want to become. By helping them understand their self-concept and connect it to career options, counselors and teachers support more meaningful and satisfying career choices

b. Using appropriate examples describe the aims of the exploration stage in counseling.

The exploration stage in counseling serves several important purposes, all aimed at helping the client gain self-awareness and feel supported. One of the primary aims is establishing rapport and building trust. This is essential because clients are unlikely to open up about personal or painful issues unless they feel safe and accepted. For example, a counselor may use open-ended questions like “What would you like to talk about today?” while maintaining a warm, nonjudgmental tone. Through attentive listening and empathy, the counselor helps the client feel comfortable and understood.

Another important aim of this stage is encouraging the expression of feelings and thoughts. Many clients come to counseling with emotions they have difficulty expressing or even recognizing. The counselor’s role is to invite the client to explore these internal experiences without fear of judgment. For instance, if a client says, “I’ve been feeling off lately,” the counselor might respond with, “Can you tell me more about that?” This kind of gentle questioning helps the client articulate their emotions more clearly.

The exploration stage also focuses on clarifying issues and patterns that may be contributing to the client’s distress. Often, clients present with a set of symptoms or problems without fully understanding their roots. A counselor helps identify recurring themes or behaviors. For example, a client may describe repeated conflicts in their relationships, and the counselor might observe, “It seems like you often feel unheard—has this happened in other areas of your life as well?” This helps the client recognize consistent patterns that may need to be addressed.

An additional goal during this phase is exploring the client’s background and context. Understanding the cultural, familial, and social influences that shape the client’s worldview is crucial. For example, a client struggling with work-related anxiety might be asked about their upbringing: “How was success talked about in your family growing up?” This kind of exploration allows the counselor to understand the pressures and beliefs that influence the client’s current experiences.

Finally, the exploration stage aims at helping clients identify and name emotions. Many people have a limited emotional vocabulary or struggle to distinguish between similar feelings. A counselor can assist by offering language and prompting deeper reflection. For instance, if a client says, “I just feel bad,” the counselor might gently ask, “When you say ‘bad,’ do you mean sad, angry, or something else?” This encourages the client to reflect more precisely on their emotional state, which is a critical first step toward emotional regulation.

12. By using the behavioral perspective, show how you may help a student whose academic achievement in one of your teaching subjects has deteriorated.

Using the behavioral perspective, a teacher can help a student whose academic achievement has deteriorated by focusing on observable behaviors and modifying them through reinforcement, punishment, modeling, and consistent feedback. The behavioral approach emphasizes that behavior is learned and can be changed through interactions with the environment.

First, it is important to identify and observe the specific behaviors that are contributing to the student's poor academic performance. For example, a teacher might notice that the student no longer submits homework, arrives late to class, or avoids participating in activities related to the subject. These observable actions serve as the starting point for intervention.

Next, the teacher can use positive reinforcement to encourage desired behaviors. If the student begins to submit assignments or participate in class discussions, the teacher might respond with praise, reward points, or privileges. For instance, saying, “Great job on turning in your homework on time—you’re really improving!” can motivate the student to continue that behavior.

In contrast, the teacher can apply mild and constructive consequences for undesired behaviors, a principle known as negative punishment (removing a pleasant stimulus) or positive punishment (introducing an unpleasant stimulus). For example, if a student consistently disrupts class and avoids learning tasks, they might lose access to a preferred classroom activity. However, punishment must be used carefully and paired with teaching the desired behavior.

Shaping behavior through small steps is another important behavioral strategy. If a student struggles with completing assignments, the teacher can break down tasks into manageable parts and reinforce progress at each stage. For example, the student may first receive praise for starting the task, then for completing half, and eventually for finishing the whole assignment.

Another helpful approach is modeling appropriate academic behaviors. The teacher or high-achieving peers can demonstrate effective study strategies, problem-solving techniques, or note-taking skills. The student observes and imitates these behaviors, especially if they are followed by positive outcomes.

Consistent feedback and monitoring are also essential. The teacher should regularly communicate with the student about their progress, pointing out specific improvements and areas needing attention. Immediate feedback, such as correcting mistakes on an assignment and explaining how to fix them, reinforces learning and helps the student build confidence.

In summary, the behavioral perspective offers practical tools to address academic decline by focusing on changing specific, observable behaviors. Through reinforcement, shaping, modeling, and consistent feedback, a teacher can help the student gradually rebuild effective learning habits and improve academic performance in the subject.

13. Assess the role of the counselor in the person-centered therapy.

In person-centered therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, the role of the counselor is central but significantly different from more directive or problem-solving approaches. The counselor’s main function is not to give advice or interpret the client’s problems, but to create a supportive environment in which the client can explore themselves, grow, and find their own solutions. This is based on the belief that individuals have an innate capacity for personal growth, given the right conditions.

Firstly, the counselor plays the role of a facilitator of self-exploration and self-acceptance. Instead of directing the session or diagnosing the client, the counselor provides a nonjudgmental and accepting space where the client feels free to express their true thoughts and emotions. This helps the client gain insight into themselves and fosters personal growth.

Secondly, the counselor must demonstrate three core conditions: unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence (genuineness). Unconditional positive regard means accepting the client without judgment or conditions, which helps build trust and encourages openness. Empathy involves deeply understanding the client’s experiences and feelings from their point of view. Congruence means the counselor is genuine and transparent, not pretending or hiding behind a professional facade. These conditions are seen as essential for change to occur.

Additionally, the counselor serves as a mirror, reflecting the client’s thoughts and feelings in a way that helps them gain clarity and insight. For example, if a client says, “I feel like I’m failing,” the counselor might respond, “It sounds like you’re really struggling with self-doubt.” This helps the client feel heard and may lead them to further explore the root of that feeling.

Importantly, the counselor respects the client’s autonomy. In person-centered therapy, it is the client—not the counselor—who leads the direction of the session. The counselor does not offer solutions or set goals for the client but trusts that the client knows what is best for them when provided with the right environment.

In summary, the counselor in person-centered therapy acts as a supportive presence rather than an expert or fixer. By offering empathy, acceptance, and genuineness, the counselor helps the client access their own potential for growth and change. The effectiveness of the therapy largely depends on the quality of the therapeutic relationship rather than specific techniques or interpretations.

14. Skills are very vital for an effective counseling experience. Defend this statement using the knowledge you have acquired in this course.

The statement that skills are very vital for an effective counseling experience is highly accurate and supported by both theoretical understanding and practical application in the field of counseling. Counseling is not merely about having good intentions or being a good listener—it requires a set of well-developed professional skills that enable the counselor to guide clients through self-discovery, emotional healing, and personal growth. Without these skills, the counseling process can be ineffective or even harmful.

Firstly, active listening is one of the most foundational skills in counseling. This involves more than just hearing the client’s words; it means fully concentrating, understanding, and responding thoughtfully. Through active listening, counselors are able to pick up on verbal and nonverbal cues, which can lead to deeper insight into the client's feelings and experiences. For example, noticing a client's change in tone or body language can help the counselor understand what the client might be struggling to express directly.

Another vital skill is empathy, which enables the counselor to connect with the client on an emotional level. Empathy allows the counselor to sense the client’s emotions and reflect them in a way that shows understanding and acceptance. When clients feel understood, they are more likely to open up, trust the process, and engage in honest self-reflection. This emotional connection can be deeply healing and forms the basis of a strong therapeutic alliance.

Questioning skills are also essential, particularly the use of open-ended questions that encourage clients to explore their thoughts and feelings. Rather than giving advice or asking yes/no questions, effective counselors ask questions like, “How did that experience make you feel?” or “What do you think led to that decision?” These questions promote deeper self-awareness and insight.

Paraphrasing and summarizing are equally important. These skills help counselors clarify what the client has said and ensure that both the counselor and the client are on the same page. For example, a counselor might say, “So what I’m hearing is that you feel overwhelmed by the expectations at home and school—is that right?” This not only confirms understanding but also helps the client organize and reflect on their own thoughts.

Additionally, nonverbal communication skills—such as maintaining appropriate eye contact, nodding, and using an open body posture—play a significant role in creating a safe and supportive environment. These cues show that the counselor is engaged, respectful, and open to what the client is sharing.

Confrontation, when used carefully and respectfully, is another skill that helps clients become aware of inconsistencies in their thinking or behavior. For instance, if a client says they want to improve their relationship with a parent but consistently avoid communication, the counselor might gently point this out. This kind of challenge encourages growth and self-awareness, provided it is done with empathy.

Lastly, confidentiality management and ethical decision-making are critical skills that protect the client’s rights and foster trust. A skilled counselor knows how to handle sensitive information, when to maintain confidentiality, and when it is necessary to break it (e.g., in cases of harm to self or others).

In conclusion, counseling skills are not optional—they are the very tools that make the counseling process effective. Without them, the counselor cannot build rapport, understand the client deeply, or facilitate meaningful change. These skills ensure that counseling is not only professional but also compassionate, goal-directed, and ethically grounded. Therefore, mastering counseling skills is essential for anyone aiming to provide effective and transformative counseling experiences.

15. Define the following terms:

i. School Guidance and counseling

ii. Operant conditioning

iii. Classical conditioning

iv. Peer counseling

v. Genuineness

vi. Confidentiality

vii. Depression

viii. Social unrest

ix. Mental health

x. Mental Illness

Here are definitions for each of the terms:

i. School Guidance and Counseling
School guidance and counseling is a structured program within the school system that provides academic, career, personal, and social support to students. Its goal is to help students understand themselves better, overcome challenges, make informed decisions, and achieve their full potential both in and outside of school.

ii. Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a learning theory developed by B.F. Skinner that involves learning through consequences. It states that behavior is influenced by rewards (reinforcements) or punishments. For example, a student who is praised for completing homework is more likely to repeat the behavior.

iii. Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a learning process first described by Ivan Pavlov, where a natural response becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus. For instance, if a student hears a bell (neutral stimulus) just before lunch every day, they may start feeling hungry whenever they hear the bell, even if food is not present.

iv. Peer Counseling
Peer counseling is a support system where trained students (peers) help fellow students deal with academic, emotional, or social issues. Because the counselor and client are of similar age or status, it often creates a more comfortable and relatable environment for sharing and problem-solving.

v. Genuineness
Genuineness, also known as congruence, is a core quality in counseling where the counselor is authentic, open, and honest with the client. It means the counselor is not pretending or hiding behind a professional façade but is present and real in the counseling relationship.

vi. Confidentiality
Confidentiality refers to the ethical duty of counselors to protect the privacy of information shared by the client during counseling sessions. It means not disclosing information without the client’s consent, except in cases where there is a risk of harm to the client or others.

vii. Depression
Depression is a common mental health disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and a loss of interest or pleasure in activities. It may also involve changes in appetite, sleep patterns, energy levels, and concentration, and it can affect one’s ability to function in daily life.

viii. Social Unrest
Social unrest refers to public dissatisfaction expressed through protests, strikes, riots, or other forms of civil disobedience. It often arises from perceived social, political, or economic injustice and can lead to instability and conflict in a community or country.

ix. Mental Health
Mental health refers to a person's emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It affects how individuals think, feel, and act, and influences how they handle stress, relate to others, and make choices. Good mental health allows people to cope with the demands of life and function effectively.

x. Mental Illness
Mental illness is a condition that affects a person's thinking, feeling, behavior, or mood to the extent that it interferes with daily functioning. Examples include depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder. Mental illness may be short-term or long-lasting and often requires professional treatment.

16. State and describe six causes of social unrest.

1. Economic Inequality
Economic inequality occurs when wealth and resources are distributed unevenly within a society. When a small portion of the population enjoys wealth while the majority struggles with poverty, frustration and resentment can grow. This often leads to protests or riots, especially if people feel excluded from economic opportunities.

2. Political Oppression
When people are denied their political rights—such as freedom of speech, fair elections, or the right to protest—they may feel powerless and angry. Governments that suppress opposition, limit civil liberties, or use excessive force often trigger public outcry, which can result in demonstrations and civil unrest.

3. Corruption
Corruption in government, law enforcement, or institutions can lead to a loss of public trust. When citizens see leaders misusing public funds, engaging in favoritism, or avoiding accountability, it fuels anger and dissatisfaction, making social unrest more likely.

4. Ethnic or Religious Discrimination
When certain ethnic, religious, or minority groups are marginalized, excluded, or treated unfairly, it can lead to tension and conflict. Discrimination may result in feelings of injustice and alienation, leading affected groups to mobilize in protest or even resort to violence.

5. Unemployment and Poverty
High levels of unemployment and poverty, especially among youth, can cause feelings of hopelessness and frustration. When people lack access to jobs, education, and basic services, they may turn to protests or civil disorder as a way of expressing their grievances.

6. Poor Governance and Lack of Transparency
When governments fail to deliver services, uphold the rule of law, or involve citizens in decision-making, social unrest can follow. A lack of transparency and accountability often leads people to believe that their leaders are not acting in the public's interest, prompting them to demand change through public demonstrations.

In summary, social unrest is often the result of deeper structural issues such as inequality, injustice, and exclusion. Addressing these root causes is essential for achieving long-term peace and stability in any society.

17. Explain the importance of the following

i. Confrontation

ii. Self-disclosure

iii. Unconditional positive regard.

i. Confrontation
Confrontation is a counseling technique used to help clients become aware of discrepancies in their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors. Its importance lies in challenging clients, in a respectful and supportive way, to examine inconsistencies that may be hindering their progress. For example, if a client says they want to improve their relationships but avoid communication, the counselor may point out this contradiction. This encourages deeper reflection and can lead to personal insight, change, and growth. When used appropriately, confrontation can break denial, promote honesty, and motivate clients to take responsibility for their actions.

ii. Self-Disclosure
Self-disclosure refers to the counselor sharing relevant personal experiences, thoughts, or feelings with the client. Its importance is in building trust and creating a more human, relatable relationship. When used appropriately and sparingly, self-disclosure can normalize a client’s experience, reduce feelings of isolation, and encourage openness. For instance, a counselor might briefly share that they also experienced anxiety in the past to show empathy and understanding. However, it must always be used with the client’s needs in mind, not to shift the focus to the counselor.

iii. Unconditional Positive Regard
Unconditional positive regard is the practice of accepting and valuing the client without judgment, regardless of their behavior, feelings, or choices. It is a core condition in person-centered therapy and is crucial for creating a safe and supportive environment. Its importance lies in helping clients feel respected, worthy, and understood. This acceptance allows clients to open up, explore difficult emotions, and develop self-acceptance. When clients feel unconditionally supported, they are more likely to trust the counselor and engage fully in the therapeutic process.

In summary, confrontation encourages awareness and change, self-disclosure builds connection and trust, and unconditional positive regard creates a safe space for growth and healing. Each plays a unique role in making counseling effective.

18. Identify three clinical evidences for accessing the unconscious level

In counseling and psychotherapy, accessing the unconscious mind is important because many of our thoughts, feelings, and memories are hidden from our conscious awareness but still influence our behavior. One clinical evidence of the unconscious is Freudian slips/ parapraxes or slips of the tongue, where a person unintentionally says something that reveals hidden thoughts or feelings. For example, a client might accidentally say “I hate you” instead of “I hate to bother you,” which could indicate repressed anger.

Another way to access the unconscious is through dream analysis. Dreams often symbolize unconscious desires, fears, or conflicts. By discussing and interpreting dreams, therapists help clients uncover what their unconscious mind might be trying to communicate. For instance, a dream about being trapped might suggest feelings of helplessness or anxiety the client has not consciously acknowledged.

Free association is a technique where clients speak freely about whatever comes to mind without censorship. This method helps bypass the conscious mind’s filters, allowing unconscious material to emerge. Patterns or themes that arise during free association can provide insight into hidden conflicts or suppressed emotions.

Hypnosis is another tool used to access unconscious material. Under hypnosis, clients may recall forgotten memories or gain awareness of thoughts and feelings not accessible in the normal waking state. This can be helpful in uncovering the root causes of psychological difficulties.

Finally, projective tests like the Rorschach inkblot test or Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) are designed to reveal unconscious aspects of personality by analyzing how clients interpret ambiguous stimuli. Their responses often reflect underlying motives, fears, or desires that they may not be fully aware of.

Together, these clinical evidences provide valuable windows into the unconscious mind, helping therapists understand deeper issues that affect clients’ mental health and behavior.

19. Explain any six causes of maladjusted behavior among learners

Maladjusted behavior among learners refers to actions or attitudes that are inappropriate or disruptive in a learning environment, often hindering their own progress and that of others. There are several causes behind maladjusted behavior in learners, including:

1. Family Environment

Poor Parenting: Lack of supervision, inconsistent discipline, or harsh punishment can lead to behavioral issues.
Family Conflicts: Divorce, domestic violence, or parental neglect can create emotional instability.
Lack of Support: Absence of encouragement or involvement in the learner’s education can affect motivation and behavior.

2. Psychological Factors

Emotional Distress: Anxiety, depression, or trauma can result in withdrawal, aggression, or inattentiveness.
Low Self-Esteem: Learners who feel incompetent may act out to gain attention or mask insecurities.
Learning Disabilities: Unrecognized or unsupported disabilities can cause frustration, leading to disruptive behavior.

3. School Environment

Teacher-Student Relationship: Lack of positive interaction or perceived unfairness can cause resentment or rebellion.
Peer Influence: Negative peer pressure or bullying can lead to maladjusted behavior.
Overcrowded or Under-resourced Schools: Lack of individual attention and resources can increase frustration.

4. Social and Cultural Factors

Cultural Conflicts: Differences in cultural values between home and school can cause confusion or resistance.
Socioeconomic Status: Poverty and related stressors may limit access to resources and emotional stability.
Exposure to Violence or Substance Abuse: Learners exposed to these can adopt maladaptive coping mechanisms.

5. Personal Factors

Health Issues: Chronic illness or fatigue can affect behavior and concentration.
Lack of Social Skills: Difficulty in communication or managing emotions can result in inappropriate behavior.
Motivational Problems: Lack of interest or relevance in the curriculum can lead to disengagement.

20. Explain five causes of school violence among students and show the role of guidance and counselling.

School violence among students is a growing concern in many educational institutions, and it significantly affects the learning environment, student well-being, and academic performance. The causes of such violence are varied and often interconnected. Understanding these causes is the first step toward finding lasting solutions and creating safer schools for everyone.

One major cause of school violence is family background and domestic problems. Students who come from broken homes, experience neglect, or witness violence at home may develop aggressive tendencies. Such environments can cause emotional instability and anger, which some students may express through violence at school. Without proper emotional support, these students often struggle to manage their feelings in healthy ways.

Another contributing factor is peer pressure and bullying. Many students feel the need to fit in or gain popularity among their peers, and this pressure can push them into violent or harmful behaviors. Those who are bullied may also respond with violence as a way of defending themselves or seeking revenge. In some cases, students engage in group violence or gang-related activities to feel a sense of belonging or power.

Lack of discipline and poor school climate also play a role. When schools do not enforce clear rules or fail to create a respectful and inclusive environment, students may feel free to act out violently. Disorganized or poorly managed schools often struggle to address conflict effectively, allowing small disputes to escalate into serious confrontations.

Exposure to violent media content, such as movies, video games, or social media, can also influence students. Constant exposure to violence can desensitize young people and shape their beliefs about how to solve problems. When students see violence as normal or acceptable, they may imitate such behavior in real life.

Lastly, substance abuse is another cause of school violence. The use of drugs or alcohol can impair judgment and increase impulsive behavior, leading students to act aggressively or get involved in violent incidents.

To address these issues, guidance and counselling play a vital role in schools. School counselors are trained to help students cope with personal, emotional, and social challenges. Through individual or group sessions, they provide a safe space where students can express their thoughts and feelings, learn to manage stress, and develop healthy ways of dealing with conflict.

Counselors also help identify students who are at risk of violent behavior and offer early intervention. They work with teachers and parents to provide support and ensure that students receive the help they need. Additionally, guidance and counselling programs often teach life skills such as communication, empathy, self-control, and problem-solving—all of which are essential in preventing violence.

In conclusion, school violence is caused by a variety of factors, including family problems, peer pressure, poor school environments, media influence, and substance abuse. However, with effective guidance and counselling, students can be guided toward positive behavior, emotional resilience, and peaceful conflict resolution, creating a safer and more supportive school community.

21. State and describe five causes of stress in the family.

Stress in the family can arise from many different sources, and when not managed well, it can affect relationships, communication, and overall family well-being. Below are several common causes of stress in the family, along with descriptions:

1. Financial Problems
One of the most common sources of family stress is financial hardship. Struggles to pay bills, job loss, or mounting debt can create anxiety, arguments, and tension among family members. Financial insecurity often leads to feelings of helplessness and conflict over spending priorities.

2. Poor Communication
When family members do not communicate effectively, misunderstandings and unresolved issues can build up, leading to stress. Lack of openness or constant arguments can weaken relationships and create an emotionally tense environment.

3. Illness or Health Issues
Chronic illness, disability, or mental health problems within the family can be a major source of stress. Caring for a sick family member may lead to emotional exhaustion and financial strain, while also affecting the family’s daily routine and responsibilities.

4. Parenting Challenges
Raising children comes with many responsibilities, and disagreements over parenting styles, discipline, or managing a child’s behavior can cause stress. The pressure of balancing work, childcare, and household tasks can also lead to parental burnout.

5. Substance Abuse
When a family member struggles with drug or alcohol addiction, it can lead to instability, trust issues, and emotional trauma. Substance abuse often leads to financial problems, domestic violence, or neglect, which affect the entire family.

6. Divorce or Separation
The breakdown of a marriage is one of the most stressful events a family can face. It often involves emotional pain, changes in living arrangements, and conflict over custody or finances, which can deeply affect both adults and children.

7. Death of a Loved One
Losing a family member can bring intense grief and sadness. The emotional toll, combined with possible financial or role changes in the family, can lead to prolonged stress, especially if the loss was sudden or traumatic.

8. Work-Life Imbalance
When parents or caregivers are overwhelmed with work and spend little time with the family, relationships can suffer. Children may feel neglected, and adults may feel guilty or disconnected, causing emotional strain within the household.

9. Academic or School Issues
Stress can also arise from children’s academic struggles, peer pressure, or behavioral issues at school. Parents may feel frustrated or helpless, while children may experience anxiety, which affects the whole family dynamic.

10. Lack of Privacy and Personal Space
In large or crowded households, the absence of privacy or time for oneself can lead to irritability and tension. Constant interaction without breaks may result in minor issues escalating into larger conflicts.

In summary, family stress can be caused by a variety of factors—emotional, financial, physical, or social. Recognizing these causes is important in taking steps to manage stress effectively and maintain healthy family relationships. Open communication, emotional support, shared responsibilities, and sometimes professional counselling can help families cope with stress and build resilience.

22. Describe the role of counselling skills in the provision of effective counselling services in the school.

The Role of Counselling Skills in the Provision of Effective Counselling Services in the School

Counselling skills are the tools and techniques that a counsellor uses to support students effectively. These skills are essential in creating a safe, supportive, and trusting environment where students can express themselves, work through their challenges, and develop personally and academically. In schools, effective counselling depends heavily on how well the counsellor uses these core skills. Below are key counselling skills and their roles in providing effective school counselling services:

Active Listening
Active listening involves giving full attention to the student, showing genuine interest, and responding appropriately. This helps students feel heard and valued. It encourages them to open up and speak freely about their thoughts, feelings, and problems. Active listening also allows the counsellor to understand the student’s needs more clearly.
Empathy
Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of another person. In counselling, showing empathy helps the student feel supported and less alone in their struggles. It builds trust and creates a non-judgmental environment, which is vital for effective counselling in schools.
Questioning Techniques
Using open-ended and reflective questions allows the counsellor to explore the student’s concerns more deeply. Good questioning helps students think critically about their situations and often leads them to find their own solutions. It also helps the counsellor gather important information to guide the counselling process.
Paraphrasing and Summarizing
These skills involve restating what the student has said in a clear and concise way. This shows that the counsellor understands the student’s message and feelings. It also helps clarify thoughts and encourages students to reflect more deeply on their issues.
Confidentiality
Maintaining confidentiality is crucial in building trust between the student and the counsellor. When students are assured that their issues will be handled with respect and privacy, they are more likely to be open and honest. However, counsellors must also be aware of legal and ethical limits of confidentiality, especially in cases involving harm or abuse.
Problem-Solving and Goal-Setting
Counsellors help students identify problems and guide them in setting realistic, achievable goals. These skills empower students to take steps toward solving their own issues and making better decisions, which contributes to their personal growth and academic success.
Non-Verbal Communication
Body language, facial expressions, eye contact, and tone of voice all play a role in how messages are conveyed. Positive non-verbal cues from the counsellor, such as nodding or maintaining eye contact, show attentiveness and support, which enhances the counselling relationship.
Building Rapport
Establishing a positive relationship with students is foundational to successful counselling. A strong rapport encourages openness and trust, making it easier for the student to engage in the counselling process. This is especially important in school settings where students may initially feel hesitant.
Cultural Sensitivity and Respect
Schools are diverse environments. Effective counsellors use culturally sensitive skills to understand and respect the background, beliefs, and experiences of each student. This helps create an inclusive and respectful space for all students.

In conclusion, counselling skills are the backbone of effective counselling services in schools. They enable the counsellor to connect with students, understand their needs, and guide them in making positive changes. By using these skills consistently and professionally, school counsellors help promote students' emotional well-being, academic performance, and social development.

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23. Describe six similarities between guidance and counseling.

Similarities Between Guidance and Counselling

Guidance and counselling are both essential support services offered in schools and other institutions to help individuals make informed decisions, solve personal problems, and develop socially and emotionally. While they may differ in approach and depth, they share several important similarities. Below are six key similarities between guidance and counselling:

Both Aim to Support Personal Development
The primary goal of both guidance and counselling is to assist individuals in their personal growth. Whether it is helping a student choose a career path (guidance) or helping them deal with emotional stress (counselling), both processes are centered on improving the individual’s overall well-being and development.
They Help Individuals Make Better Decisions
Both guidance and counselling empower people to make thoughtful and informed decisions about their lives. Whether it's choosing subjects, dealing with peer pressure, or managing personal challenges, they offer tools and support to help individuals weigh their options and choose wisely.
They Are Both Client-Centered
In both practices, the individual seeking help—whether a student or another person—is at the center of the process. The counsellor or guide focuses on understanding the person's needs, concerns, and goals, and tailors their approach accordingly. This ensures that the support given is meaningful and relevant to the person's life.
They Promote Self-Understanding
Both guidance and counselling encourage individuals to understand themselves better—their interests, strengths, weaknesses, values, and emotions. This self-awareness is key to personal decision-making, academic success, and healthy relationships.
They Use Similar Communication Skills
Effective communication is essential in both guidance and counselling. Skills such as active listening, empathy, questioning, and providing feedback are used in both processes to create trust and facilitate meaningful conversations between the helper and the individual.
They Can Be Offered by Trained Professionals
Both services are provided by professionals who have specialized training in human behavior, psychology, and communication. Although the level of depth may differ—with counselling often requiring deeper emotional engagement—both roles require understanding, patience, and professional ethics to guide individuals effectively.

In summary, guidance and counselling share the same core purpose: to help individuals improve their lives through informed choices, personal insight, and emotional support. They both play a vital role in promoting student success and well-being, particularly in educational settings where young people face a wide range of academic, social, and emotional challenges.

24. Outline six objectives’ goals of guidance and counseling.

Six Objectives (Goals) of Guidance and Counselling

1. To Support Personal Development
Guidance and counselling aim to help individuals understand themselves better—emotionally, socially, and psychologically—so they can grow into confident, responsible, and self-aware individuals.

2. To Assist in Academic Achievement
One of the key goals is to help students improve their study habits, manage time effectively, and overcome learning difficulties, ultimately enhancing their academic performance.

3. To Promote Career Awareness and Planning
Guidance and counselling help students explore different career options, understand their interests and strengths, and make informed choices about their future education or career paths.

4. To Foster Positive Social and Interpersonal Relationships
Counselling supports students in developing healthy relationships, improving communication skills, resolving conflicts, and building empathy and respect for others.

5. To Help in Solving Personal and Psychological Problems
Counselling provides a safe space for individuals to talk about and manage personal issues such as stress, anxiety, peer pressure, or family challenges, promoting emotional well-being.

6. To Support Adjustment and Coping Skills
Guidance and counselling prepare individuals to adapt to changes in their lives—whether in school, at home, or in society—by teaching coping mechanisms, decision-making skills, and problem-solving techniques.

These objectives work together to support students' academic, social, emotional, and career development, helping them lead balanced and productive lives

25. Discuss the content area of guidance curriculum

Content Areas of the Guidance Curriculum

The guidance curriculum is a structured program within the school system designed to support the overall development of students. It addresses their academic, personal-social, and career needs through planned lessons, activities, and services. The content areas of the guidance curriculum are typically grouped into the following key domains:

1. Academic Development
This area focuses on helping students succeed in their educational journey. It includes:

o Study habits and time management

o Goal setting and motivation

o Exam preparation and test-taking strategies

o Learning styles and academic planning

o Classroom behavior and responsibility
The goal is to equip students with skills that improve their academic performance and help them become independent learners.

2. Career Development
This domain prepares students for the world of work by helping them understand their interests, abilities, and the various career options available. It covers:

o Self-assessment and career exploration

o Information about different careers and job trends

o Decision-making and goal setting for the future

o Transition planning from school to higher education or employment

o Workplace values and skills such as teamwork, communication, and responsibility
This helps students make informed career choices and set realistic goals for their futures.

3. Personal and Social Development
This area aims to help students develop emotional intelligence, self-awareness, and positive social skills. Topics include:

o Self-esteem and self-awareness

o Communication and interpersonal relationships

o Conflict resolution and problem-solving

o Managing emotions like anger, stress, and anxiety

o Coping with peer pressure and making responsible choices
These lessons help students navigate their social environments and build healthy relationships with others.

4. Health and Wellness Education
Some guidance programs also include health-related topics to promote student well-being. This includes:

o Substance abuse awareness and prevention

o Sexual and reproductive health education

o Nutrition and physical health awareness

o Mental health awareness and coping strategies

o Safety and personal boundaries
This equips students with knowledge to make healthy, informed life choices.

5. Moral and Ethical Education
In many educational settings, especially where character formation is emphasized, the guidance curriculum may include moral development topics such as:

o Values education (e.g., honesty, responsibility, respect)

o Understanding right and wrong

o Making ethical decisions

o Respecting diversity and cultural differences
These help shape students into responsible, ethical members of society.

In conclusion, the content areas of the guidance curriculum are designed to promote the holistic development of students—academically, socially, emotionally, and professionally. By addressing these areas through structured programs, schools help prepare students not only for academic success but also for life beyond the classroom.

26. As a counsellor using person centered theory, explain five benefits that you need to have about your client.

As a counsellor using Person-Centered Theory (developed by Carl Rogers), it is essential to view the client as the central figure in the counselling process. This humanistic approach emphasizes empathy, respect, and unconditional positive regard, allowing the client to lead their own growth and healing. To practice effectively, there are key benefits or positive beliefs you need to hold about your client. Here are five important ones:

1. Belief in the Client’s Capacity for Self-Growth
You must believe that every client has the inner potential to grow, change, and solve their own problems. Your role is not to direct or advise, but to create the right environment for that growth by being supportive and non-judgmental. This belief empowers clients and promotes self-confidence and independence.

2. Trust in the Client’s Self-Awareness
Person-centered theory assumes that clients are the best experts on their own lives. You should trust that, with the right support, clients can become more aware of their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, and can use that awareness to make healthy decisions.

3. Respect for the Client’s Autonomy
You must respect the client’s ability to make choices and take responsibility for their own life. Rather than directing or diagnosing, you provide space for the client to explore, reflect, and decide their own path forward. This builds a sense of personal responsibility and empowerment.

4. Unconditional Positive Regard
You need to accept and value your client without judgment, regardless of their behavior, feelings, or background. This acceptance creates a safe, trusting relationship that encourages the client to be open and honest, which is essential for healing and growth.

5. Confidence in the Client’s Ability to Find Meaning
Person-centered counselling holds that clients are capable of finding their own meaning and direction in life. You should believe that even in the midst of confusion or emotional pain, the client can discover purpose and solutions through reflection and self-exploration.

In summary, these five beliefs reflect the core of person-centered theory: a deep trust in the client’s ability to grow, decide, and heal within a supportive, non-judgmental therapeutic relationship.

27. State FIVE rights of clients to be observed during a counselling process.

Right to Confidentiality

Clients have the right to expect that the information shared during counselling will be kept confidential. This means that any personal details or discussions shared within the counselling session cannot be disclosed to others without the client's consent, except in cases where the client’s safety is at risk (e.g., harm to self or others).

2. Right to Informed Consent

Clients should be informed about the counselling process, including the methods and techniques used, the goals of the sessions, and any potential risks. This allows clients to make an informed decision about whether they wish to continue with the counselling process.

3. Right to Respect and Dignity

Clients are entitled to be treated with respect and dignity throughout the counselling process. This includes being heard without judgment, having their feelings validated, and receiving fair treatment regardless of their background, culture, or personal circumstances.

4. Right to Autonomy

Clients have the right to make their own decisions regarding their treatment and the counselling process. Counsellors should empower clients to take an active role in their healing, respecting their ability to make choices that are best for them.

5. Right to Terminate

Clients have the right to terminate the counselling process at any time. They should not feel obligated to continue if they are uncomfortable or feel that the sessions are no longer beneficial. This right gives clients control over their own therapeutic journey.

6. Right to Non-Discrimination

Clients have the right to be free from discrimination based on race, gender, religion, sexual orientation, or any other personal characteristic. They should feel that they are being treated equally and fairly during the entire counselling process.

7. Right to Privacy

In addition to confidentiality, clients have the right to privacy. This means that personal information or records shared during counselling should not be accessible to others without the client's explicit consent, except as required by law.

8. Right to Safe Environment

Clients have the right to a safe, supportive, and comfortable environment during counselling. The physical and emotional space should be conducive to open communication and self-exploration, free from any form of abuse, intimidation, or harassment.

In summary, these rights ensure that the client is fully respected, informed, and empowered throughout the counselling process. Counselors must adhere to these rights to foster a trusting and effective therapeutic relationship.

28. Discuss any two theories of guidance and counselling and their application in modern society.

One important theory in guidance and counselling is the Person-Centered Theory developed by Carl Rogers. This theory emphasizes that every individual has the potential for personal growth and self-understanding if provided with the right environment. The counsellor’s role is not to give direct advice but to offer unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness. These core conditions help clients feel accepted and safe, encouraging them to open up and reflect on their own thoughts and feelings. In modern society, this theory is widely applied in school settings, mental health services, and community programs, helping individuals facing emotional distress, low self-esteem, or identity issues. It is particularly useful in environments where individuals need emotional support and encouragement to make their own decisions.

Another widely used approach is the Cognitive Behavioral Theory (CBT), which focuses on the relationship between thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. This theory operates on the belief that negative thought patterns can lead to emotional and behavioral problems. Through CBT, individuals learn to identify and challenge irrational beliefs and replace them with more constructive and realistic thoughts. In today’s world, CBT is applied in treating anxiety, depression, stress, and behavioral issues. It is especially popular in school counselling, where students are taught coping strategies for exam stress and peer pressure. It is also effective in workplace counselling programs to help employees manage performance anxiety or work-life balance issues.

The Psychoanalytic Theory, developed by Sigmund Freud, is another foundation in counselling. It centers on the influence of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and inner conflicts. Counsellors using this approach help clients explore repressed emotions and unresolved conflicts that may be affecting their current behavior. Though it is more intensive and long-term, its application in modern therapy can still be seen in clinical psychology, particularly for clients dealing with deep-rooted emotional issues or trauma. In today’s society, this theory is useful for clients who require insight into their personality and deeper emotional struggles.

The Behavioral Theory is another significant approach, focusing on observable behavior rather than internal thoughts or feelings. This theory believes that behavior is learned and can be changed through techniques like reinforcement, punishment, and behavioral modification. In modern guidance and counselling, this theory is applied in classroom management, behavioral therapy, and special education. It is particularly effective with children who exhibit disruptive behavior or individuals with developmental disorders, where structured behavior-change programs are essential.

In summary, the various theories of guidance and counselling each provide unique tools for understanding and helping individuals. Whether through the supportive environment of person-centered counselling, the practical strategies of CBT, the deep insights of psychoanalysis, or the structured behavior change of behavioral theory, these approaches are widely applicable in modern educational, clinical, and social settings to meet the diverse needs of individuals.

29. Examine five defense mechanism that people use to defend their ego from the anxiety.

ne common defense mechanism is denial. This occurs when a person refuses to accept reality or facts because they are too painful or threatening to acknowledge. Denial helps protect the ego by keeping unwanted feelings or events out of conscious awareness. For example, someone who has lost a loved one might continue to act as though the person is still alive because facing the truth would be too emotionally overwhelming. While denial may offer temporary relief, it can prevent emotional healing and acceptance over time.

Another frequently used defense mechanism is repression. This involves unconsciously blocking unpleasant thoughts, memories, or desires from conscious awareness. A person may not even realize that they are repressing something, as the mind pushes it deep into the unconscious to reduce anxiety. For instance, a person who experienced trauma in childhood may have no conscious memory of the event, yet it still influences their emotions and behavior. Repression serves to shield the individual from psychological pain, but it can lead to emotional problems if unresolved.

Projection is a defense mechanism where an individual attributes their own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to someone else. This allows the person to avoid confronting their inner conflicts. For example, someone who is feeling angry but does not want to admit it might accuse others of being hostile toward them. Projection helps reduce anxiety by shifting the focus away from the self, but it can distort relationships and prevent honest self-reflection.

Rationalization involves creating logical explanations or excuses to justify behaviors or feelings that might otherwise cause shame or guilt. It allows individuals to avoid facing the true reasons for their actions. For example, a student who fails an exam might blame the teacher for not explaining the material well, rather than acknowledging their lack of preparation. Rationalization can protect self-esteem but also prevent personal responsibility and growth.

Another key defense mechanism is regression, which is when a person reverts to behaviors typical of an earlier developmental stage in response to stress or anxiety. For example, an adult who is overwhelmed by pressure at work might begin to act childishly—throwing tantrums or seeking comfort in food or sleep. Regression serves as a way to escape current emotional challenges by returning to a time when life felt simpler or more secure.

These defense mechanisms operate unconsciously and are a natural part of how the mind copes with stress and emotional pain. While they can provide temporary relief from anxiety, relying on them too heavily or for too long can interfere with emotional growth and healthy functioning. Recognizing and understanding these mechanisms is the first step toward greater self-awareness and psychological resilience.

30. Explain four responsibilities of students in guidance and counseling

Responsibilities of Students in Guidance and Counselling

In the guidance and counselling process, students are not just passive recipients of help—they also have important responsibilities that contribute to its success. For counselling to be effective, students must actively participate and take ownership of their personal growth and decision-making.

One key responsibility of students is openness and honesty. Students are expected to share their thoughts, feelings, and concerns truthfully during counselling sessions. Being open allows the counsellor to understand the real issues and offer meaningful support. Hiding information or being dishonest can limit the effectiveness of the guidance provided.

Another responsibility is willingness to participate. Students should engage actively in the process by attending sessions regularly and being mentally present. Whether it is career guidance, academic support, or personal counselling, a positive attitude and genuine effort from the student are essential for meaningful progress.

Students also have the responsibility of respecting the counselling relationship. This includes showing respect for the counsellor’s time, maintaining confidentiality of what is shared, and following agreed-upon rules during sessions. Respect builds trust and creates a safe environment for both parties to work effectively.

Applying advice and strategies provided during guidance is another important role of the student. Counsellors may suggest practical steps to deal with academic problems, stress, or decision-making. It is the student’s duty to consider and try these strategies in real-life situations. Progress depends not just on discussion but on action.

Lastly, students are responsible for taking ownership of their decisions. While guidance and counselling offer support and direction, the final decisions lie with the student. They must take responsibility for the choices they make, whether related to academics, career, or personal life.

In conclusion, the success of guidance and counselling depends on a cooperative relationship between the counsellor and the student. By being honest, respectful, engaged, and responsible, students can benefit fully from the services and make positive changes in their lives

31. Analyze the ethics that peer counselors need to observe as they help their fellow students.

Ethics That Peer Counselors Need to Observe

Peer counsellors play a vital role in providing emotional support, guidance, and a listening ear to their fellow students. Because of the sensitive nature of their work, they are expected to maintain high ethical standards to ensure trust, respect, and safety within the counselling relationship. Observing proper ethics not only protects the students they help but also enhances the credibility and effectiveness of peer counselling programs.

One of the most important ethics peer counsellors must uphold is confidentiality. Students seeking help must feel safe that what they share will remain private. Peer counsellors are ethically bound not to disclose any personal information unless there is a risk of harm to the student or others. Breaching confidentiality can damage trust and discourage students from seeking help in the future.

Respect for boundaries is another essential ethical principle. Peer counsellors must understand their role and avoid overstepping their limits. They are not trained psychologists, so they should refer cases beyond their capacity—such as severe mental health issues—to professional counsellors. Respecting personal, emotional, and physical boundaries ensures a professional and safe helping relationship.

Non-judgmental attitude is also critical. Peer counsellors must approach every situation with openness and empathy, regardless of the student’s background, beliefs, or actions. Ethical counselling requires setting aside personal biases and creating a space where the student feels accepted and valued. Judging or criticizing can harm the student's self-esteem and shut down communication.

Voluntary participation is another key ethical consideration. Peer counsellors must ensure that students are not forced into counselling or pressured to share more than they are comfortable with. The process should be based on mutual consent, and the student should feel free to speak, pause, or even end the session if they choose.

Integrity and honesty are also fundamental. Peer counsellors should be truthful about what they can and cannot do. They must not pretend to have knowledge or training they do not possess, and they must follow through on commitments made during the counselling process. Being honest helps build credibility and trust.

In addition, peer counsellors must practice cultural sensitivity and inclusiveness. They should be aware of and respect cultural, religious, and personal differences, avoiding language or behavior that could be offensive or discriminatory. Creating an inclusive environment allows all students to feel welcome and supported.

In conclusion, ethics in peer counselling are essential to creating a respectful, supportive, and effective environment for student support. By observing principles such as confidentiality, respect for boundaries, non-judgment, honesty, and inclusiveness, peer counsellors can build trust and make a positive impact on the lives of their fellow students

32. Explain five ethical issues in counselling in school.

Ethical Issues in Counselling in School

Counselling in schools plays a vital role in supporting students' emotional, academic, and social development. However, because it deals with sensitive personal matters, counsellors must adhere to ethical standards to ensure professionalism, trust, and student safety. Several ethical issues commonly arise in school counselling and must be managed carefully.

One major ethical issue is confidentiality. Students need to feel safe when sharing their thoughts and problems, knowing that the information will be kept private. However, school counsellors often face situations where confidentiality may need to be broken—for example, if a student is at risk of harming themselves or others. In such cases, the counsellor is ethically obligated to act to protect the student’s safety, even if it means informing parents, teachers, or authorities.

Another key issue is informed consent. Before counselling begins, students (and often their parents or guardians, especially for minors) should be informed about the purpose of counselling, the process involved, and any limitations to confidentiality. This ensures that students participate voluntarily and are aware of their rights and responsibilities. Counsellors must clearly communicate this information in an age-appropriate and understandable way.

Boundaries and dual relationships are also important ethical concerns. School counsellors often interact with students in multiple roles, such as teachers, mentors, or club supervisors. These dual relationships can blur professional boundaries and create conflicts of interest. Ethical counselling requires maintaining clear, professional boundaries and avoiding relationships that may affect objectivity or cause harm.

Cultural sensitivity and non-discrimination is another essential ethical consideration. School counsellors must treat all students fairly, regardless of their race, gender, religion, sexual orientation, or socio-economic background. Failing to respect diversity can lead to biased support, mistrust, or even emotional harm. Ethical practice involves being open-minded, respectful, and inclusive in every counselling interaction.

Lastly, professional competence is a critical ethical issue. School counsellors must work within the limits of their training and expertise. If a student presents issues beyond the counsellor’s qualifications—such as severe mental health disorders—the counsellor is ethically required to refer the student to a qualified mental health professional. Continuing to handle such cases without proper knowledge can lead to ineffective support or even harm.

In conclusion, ethical issues such as confidentiality, informed consent, boundaries, cultural sensitivity, and professional competence are essential in school counselling. Addressing these issues responsibly ensures that students receive safe, respectful, and effective support as they navigate personal and academic challenges.

33. Outline any ten current and emerging issues in guidance and counseling in school.

Ten Current and Emerging Issues in Guidance and Counselling in Schools

Mental Health Challenges
Increasing levels of anxiety, depression, and emotional stress among students are placing greater demands on school counsellors.
Bullying and Cyberbullying
With the rise of digital communication, students are facing more online harassment, requiring counsellors to address both in-person and virtual bullying.
Career Uncertainty and Job Market Changes
Rapid changes in the job market and technology create confusion among students about career paths, requiring updated career guidance.
Drug and Substance Abuse
There is a growing concern about the use of drugs and alcohol among students, which affects academic performance and behavior.
Teenage Pregnancy and Sexual Health
Rising rates of early sexual activity and lack of sexual health awareness among students require counsellors to provide appropriate education and support.
Family Instability
Divorce, neglect, and domestic violence are increasingly affecting students’ emotional well-being and school performance.
Peer Pressure and Risky Behavior
Students often face pressure to conform to harmful social behaviors, including cheating, substance use, or truancy.
Academic Pressure and Competition
High expectations from parents and schools are causing stress and burnout among students, especially in exam-driven environments.
Digital Addiction and Social Media Influence
Excessive use of smartphones, gaming, and social media affects students' concentration, sleep, and emotional health.
Cultural and Identity Issues
Students from diverse backgrounds may face discrimination or struggle with identity-related issues, including gender identity and cultural integration.

These emerging issues highlight the need for school counsellors to be well-trained, adaptable, and responsive to the evolving needs of students in today’s complex world.

34. Discuss any five reasons why guidance and counselling is more relevant in the Kenyan schools now than never before

Reasons Why Guidance and Counselling Is More Relevant in Kenyan Schools Now Than Ever Before

Guidance and counselling has become increasingly important in Kenyan schools due to the rapid changes and growing challenges facing students in today’s society. The role of schools is no longer limited to academic instruction alone; they are now responsible for the holistic development of learners. As a result, guidance and counselling services have become essential in addressing students’ academic, emotional, social, and psychological needs.

One key reason for its growing relevance is the rise in mental health issues among students. Cases of anxiety, depression, stress, and even suicide have increased in Kenyan schools, often due to academic pressure, broken families, or economic hardships. Guidance and counselling help students cope with such challenges by providing emotional support and teaching coping strategies.

Another important factor is the increase in social problems such as drug abuse, teenage pregnancy, and peer pressure. Many students, especially in urban areas, are exposed to harmful behaviors that threaten their well-being and future. Through counselling, students can learn about the dangers of such behaviors and receive support to make responsible life choices.

Academic pressure and competition have also intensified due to national exams and the demand for high academic performance. Many students feel overwhelmed and lose motivation. Guidance and counselling help students set realistic goals, manage time, and deal with exam-related stress in a healthy way.

In addition, there is a growing need for career guidance. With a fast-changing job market influenced by technology and globalization, students need accurate and timely information to make informed career choices. Counsellors play a key role in helping students understand their interests, abilities, and opportunities in the modern economy.

Family and societal changes have also made counselling more necessary. Many students come from unstable homes—affected by divorce, poverty, or neglect—which affects their emotional and academic life. Counsellors help such students develop resilience, build self-esteem, and stay focused on their goals.

Moreover, the rise of technology and social media has introduced new challenges, such as cyberbullying, addiction to devices, and low self-esteem due to online comparisons. Counselling is essential in educating students on responsible technology use and building digital awareness.

Lastly, issues of identity, self-awareness, and cultural diversity are more pronounced in modern Kenyan society. As students grow, they often struggle with self-image, gender identity, and acceptance. Guidance and counselling provide a safe space for them to explore these issues and develop a healthy sense of self.

In conclusion, guidance and counselling are more relevant in Kenyan schools today than ever before because students are facing a wider range of personal, academic, and social challenges. These services help to nurture well-rounded individuals who are emotionally balanced, responsible, and prepared for life beyond school. Investing in strong guidance and counselling programs is essential for the future of Kenya’s education system and society at large.

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35. State and briefly explain six problems faced by peers.

Problems Faced by Peers

Peers—especially students of similar age groups—often face a variety of personal, academic, and social challenges. These problems can affect their emotional well-being, behavior, and performance in school. Below are some common problems faced by peers and brief explanations:

Peer Pressure
Many students feel pressured to conform to group behavior, even when it goes against their values. This can lead to risky activities like drug use, cheating, or skipping classes in order to fit in or gain approval.

Bullying
Physical, emotional, or cyberbullying is a major issue among peers. Victims of bullying may suffer from low self-esteem, anxiety, or depression, which affects their school performance and social life.

Academic Stress
Peers often struggle with exam pressure, competition, and fear of failure. Trying to meet high expectations from teachers or parents can lead to mental exhaustion and lack of motivation.

Relationship Conflicts
Disagreements and misunderstandings among friends, or issues in romantic relationships, can cause emotional stress. Peer conflicts often affect concentration, mood, and self-confidence.

Low Self-Esteem
Some peers feel inadequate or unworthy compared to others, especially in today’s social media-driven culture. This can result in withdrawal, isolation, or even harmful behavior like self-harm.

Family Problems
Issues at home—such as domestic violence, poverty, or neglect—can spill over into school life, making it hard for peers to focus, trust others, or perform well academically.

Substance Abuse
Some students experiment with drugs, alcohol, or cigarettes due to curiosity or influence from others. This affects their health, academic performance, and future prospects.

These challenges show the importance of strong peer support systems and the role of guidance and counselling in helping students navigate their teenage years in a healthy and responsible way

36. Describe fully five (5) behavioral problems in children which may require. Guidance and Counselling.

Behavioral Problems in Children That May Require Guidance and Counselling

Children may display a variety of behavioral problems during their development, and while some behaviors are normal at certain stages, others may indicate deeper emotional, psychological, or social challenges. When these behaviors interfere with learning, relationships, or daily functioning, guidance and counselling become necessary to help the child understand, manage, and change the negative behaviors.

Aggressive Behavior
Children who show frequent aggression—such as hitting, shouting, fighting, or destroying property—may be struggling with anger, frustration, or emotional distress. Such behavior often results from unresolved conflicts at home, exposure to violence, or difficulty managing emotions. Counselling can help children learn healthy ways to express feelings, resolve conflicts, and develop self-control.

Withdrawal and Social Isolation
Some children become unusually quiet, avoid social interactions, or prefer to be alone. This may be a sign of low self-esteem, anxiety, depression, or fear of rejection. Guidance and counselling can help such children build confidence, improve communication skills, and feel more connected to others.

Disobedience and Defiance
Constant refusal to follow rules, talk back to authority, or challenge instructions may signal deeper behavioral or emotional issues. This can affect relationships with teachers, parents, and peers. Through counselling, children can explore the reasons behind their defiance and learn respectful ways to express their needs or frustrations.

Truancy and School Avoidance
When children frequently miss school without a valid reason, it may indicate academic difficulties, bullying, or fear of failure. Guidance and counselling can uncover the root cause of truancy and help the child re-engage with learning through support, encouragement, and problem-solving strategies.

Lying and Stealing
Repeated dishonesty or taking things that don’t belong to them may be signs of attention-seeking, unmet emotional needs, or lack of understanding of right and wrong. Counselling can guide the child in developing moral awareness, honesty, and personal responsibility.

Hyperactivity and Inattention
Children who are unusually restless, easily distracted, or unable to sit still may struggle with attention-deficit disorders or overstimulation. These behaviors can lead to poor academic performance and strained relationships. Counselling can help in managing impulsivity, improving focus, and developing coping strategies in partnership with teachers and parents.

Poor Academic Motivation
Some children show a lack of interest in learning, low effort in classwork, or frequent failure despite having the ability to perform. This could result from low self-confidence, family issues, or undiagnosed learning difficulties. Guidance helps children set goals, discover their strengths, and regain motivation.

Emotional Outbursts or Mood Swings
Frequent crying, irritability, or extreme mood changes may indicate emotional distress or a lack of coping skills. Counselling supports emotional regulation and helps children identify and manage their feelings in healthy ways.

In conclusion, behavioral problems in children are often signs of deeper struggles that should not be ignored. Guidance and counselling provide a safe, supportive environment where children can be heard, understood, and helped to develop positive behaviors, emotional balance, and strong social skills. Early intervention is key to preventing long-term consequences and promoting healthy development

37. Describe any five focal areas of school guidance and counselling programmes.

Focal Areas of School Guidance and Counselling Programmes

School guidance and counselling programmes are designed to support the overall development of learners by addressing their academic, personal, social, and career needs. These programmes focus on specific areas that are essential for student success and well-being. The following are some key focal areas:

Educational Guidance
This area is concerned with helping students improve their learning and academic performance. It involves advising learners on how to choose the right subjects, develop effective study habits, manage time, and overcome academic difficulties. It also includes assisting students with transitions, such as moving from primary to secondary school or preparing for national exams.

Career or Vocational Guidance
Career guidance helps students understand their talents, interests, and future job opportunities. Counsellors guide learners in setting career goals, exploring different professions, and making informed decisions about higher education or training. This prepares students for the world of work and helps them align their abilities with suitable career paths.

Personal and Social Guidance
This area focuses on students' emotional and social development. It includes helping students deal with issues such as peer pressure, low self-esteem, family conflicts, bullying, and relationship problems. The goal is to promote self-awareness, emotional balance, good behavior, and healthy relationships with others.

Moral and Spiritual Guidance
This aspect aims to instill values, ethics, and responsible behavior in students. It encourages them to develop respect, honesty, discipline, and integrity. Counsellors help students reflect on their choices and actions, promoting a strong moral foundation that supports positive decision-making and social responsibility.

Health and Psychological Guidance
This area addresses students’ physical and mental well-being. It involves educating learners on personal hygiene, reproductive health, substance abuse prevention, and managing stress or trauma. Counsellors offer support for emotional and psychological challenges to ensure students are mentally fit for learning and personal growth.

These focal areas work together to ensure that students are not only academically successful but also emotionally stable, socially responsible, and prepared for life beyond school.

38. What does it mean to listen to someone wholistically.

Listening to someone holistically means paying full attention to the whole person—not just their words, but also their emotions, body language, tone of voice, and underlying needs. It involves being fully present and open-minded, aiming to understand the person’s experience in a complete and compassionate way.

Holistic listening goes beyond simply hearing what is said. It includes:

Emotional awareness – recognizing and responding to the speaker's feelings, even if they are not directly expressed.
Non-verbal cues – observing body language, eye contact, posture, and facial expressions to gain deeper insight.
Empathy and connection – trying to feel what the person is feeling and showing genuine care and concern.
Respect and non-judgment – accepting the person as they are without criticizing or rushing to give advice.
Context understanding – considering the speaker’s background, environment, and circumstances to better grasp the meaning behind their message.

In counselling and support roles, holistic listening helps build trust and allows the speaker to feel heard, understood, and valued. It leads to deeper communication and more effective support.

39. Highlight circumstances under which a counseling relationship may be terminated

Circumstances Under Which a Counselling Relationship May Be Terminated

A counselling relationship may be brought to an end for various professional, ethical, or personal reasons. Termination should be done carefully and respectfully to ensure the client’s well-being is maintained. Below are some common circumstances under which a counselling relationship may be terminated:

1. Achievement of Goals
When the client has achieved the set counselling goals, made progress, and no longer requires support, the counselling process can be successfully concluded.

2. Lack of Progress
If, after a reasonable period, the client shows no improvement or willingness to engage meaningfully in the process, the counsellor may decide to terminate and possibly refer the client elsewhere.

3. Breach of Ethical Boundaries
If the client engages in inappropriate behavior (e.g., threats, harassment) or if there is a dual relationship that compromises professionalism, termination may be necessary to maintain ethical standards.

4. Referral to Another Professional
When the client’s issues are beyond the counsellor’s area of competence—such as severe mental illness, legal matters, or medical concerns—the counsellor may terminate the relationship and refer the client to a qualified specialist.

5. Client’s Request
If the client chooses to end the counselling relationship for personal reasons or feels that the process is no longer beneficial, their decision must be respected.

6. Counsellor’s Unavailability
Termination may occur if the counsellor is leaving the institution, going on extended leave, or is otherwise unable to continue offering services. In such cases, a proper transition or referral should be arranged.

7. Violation of Counselling Agreement
If the client consistently misses appointments, disregards agreed-upon boundaries, or breaks confidentiality agreements, the counsellor may decide to terminate the relationship.

Termination should always be handled with care, ensuring that the client is informed, supported, and, if needed, referred to other services for continued help

40. Why is it important for a counselor to study personality development

Importance of Studying Personality Development for a Counsellor

Understanding personality development is crucial for a counsellor because it provides deep insight into how individuals grow, think, feel, and behave over time. Personality influences how people respond to challenges, relate to others, and make decisions. By studying personality development, counsellors are better equipped to support clients in a meaningful and effective way.

First, it helps the counsellor understand the unique traits and behaviors of each client. People have different temperaments, coping styles, and emotional responses, all shaped by their personality. Recognizing these differences allows the counsellor to tailor their approach to meet the individual needs of each client.

Second, it allows the counsellor to identify the root causes of behavioral or emotional problems. Many issues faced in counselling—such as low self-esteem, anxiety, aggression, or poor social skills—are linked to how a person’s personality developed over time. Understanding this background enables the counsellor to address the problem more holistically.

Third, knowledge of personality development helps in building a strong therapeutic relationship. When counsellors understand what motivates a client or how they view the world, it becomes easier to establish trust, empathy, and rapport—critical elements for successful counselling.

Fourth, it enables better assessment and diagnosis. Counsellors often use personality theories to interpret client behavior and assess their strengths and weaknesses. This insight is useful in setting goals, developing treatment plans, and choosing the right intervention methods.

Lastly, understanding personality development is essential for guiding personal growth and change. Counsellors can help clients understand themselves better, break negative patterns, and build on their strengths by explaining how personality is shaped—and how it can continue to evolve in healthy ways.

In summary, studying personality development gives counsellors the tools to understand, support, and guide clients effectively. It forms the foundation for personalized, compassionate, and goal-oriented counselling

41. Discuss two conditions that influence aggressive behavior in school

Conditions That Influence Aggressive Behavior in School

Aggressive behavior in school can be influenced by a variety of social, emotional, psychological, and environmental conditions. These behaviors may include physical fights, verbal abuse, bullying, defiance toward authority, or destruction of property. Understanding the root causes of aggression is key to preventing and managing it effectively within the school setting. Below are some major conditions that influence aggressive behavior in students:

1. Family Background and Home Environment
A child’s behavior in school is often a reflection of what they experience at home. Exposure to violence, neglect, abuse, or constant conflict within the family can lead to frustration, anger, and emotional instability in children. If a child lacks emotional support, love, or positive role models, they may resort to aggression as a way to express their inner pain or to gain attention.

2. Peer Influence and Social Pressure
Children and adolescents are highly influenced by their peers. If a student is part of a group that values aggressive behavior or uses it to assert dominance, they may imitate such behavior to fit in or gain approval. Peer rejection, bullying, or being a victim of aggression can also lead to retaliatory aggression as a defense mechanism.

3. Emotional or Psychological Issues
Students who suffer from mental health problems like anxiety, depression, trauma, or low self-esteem may display aggression as a coping strategy. Emotional dysregulation or a lack of problem-solving skills can make it difficult for students to express themselves calmly, leading to outbursts or violent reactions.

4. Poor School Climate and Lack of Discipline
A school environment that lacks clear rules, effective discipline policies, or supportive relationships between teachers and students can contribute to aggression. When students feel unsafe, misunderstood, or unfairly treated, they may act out as a form of protest or rebellion.

5. Academic Pressure and Frustration
Struggles in academics—such as learning difficulties, repeated failure, or pressure to perform—can lead to feelings of inadequacy and anger. In some cases, students who feel hopeless about their academic future may express their frustration through aggressive acts, particularly if they lack support or understanding from teachers.

6. Media and Technology Influence
Exposure to violent content in movies, video games, and social media can desensitize students to aggression and encourage imitation. If students regularly consume content that glorifies violence or aggressive behavior, they may come to see such behavior as normal or acceptable.

In conclusion, aggressive behavior in school is influenced by a complex interplay of personal, social, and environmental factors. Addressing these conditions through counselling, positive discipline, parental involvement, and a supportive school climate is essential to promoting healthy, respectful behavior among students

42. Explain some 4-coping mechanism in the light of stress among people

Coping Mechanisms in the Light of Stress Among People

Stress is a natural part of life, and everyone experiences it at different points—whether due to work, school, relationships, health, or unexpected life events. How people respond to stress determines their ability to manage it and maintain emotional and mental well-being. Coping mechanisms are the strategies individuals use to deal with stress, and these can be either healthy or unhealthy. Below are some common coping mechanisms that people use when faced with stress:

Problem-Solving (Problem-Focused Coping)
This is a proactive approach where individuals take steps to eliminate or reduce the source of stress. It involves identifying the problem, brainstorming solutions, and implementing practical actions. For example, a person stressed about financial difficulties may create a budget or seek additional sources of income. This strategy is effective when the situation can be changed or influenced.

Emotional Regulation (Emotion-Focused Coping)
When the stressor cannot be immediately resolved, people often turn to emotion-focused coping to manage their feelings. This includes strategies like deep breathing, meditation, journaling, praying, or talking to someone they trust. Such methods help release emotional tension and bring about a sense of calm or acceptance, especially in situations like grief or loss.

Seeking Social Support
Reaching out to friends, family, or professionals can be a strong coping tool. Social support provides comfort, guidance, and reassurance. Sharing problems with someone who listens and understands can ease the burden of stress and help individuals feel less alone.

Physical Activity and Healthy Lifestyle Choices
Engaging in regular physical exercise, eating nutritious food, and getting enough sleep can significantly reduce stress levels. Physical activity helps release endorphins, which are natural mood boosters. A healthy lifestyle strengthens the body and mind to better cope with pressure and challenges.

In summary, coping mechanisms are essential in helping individuals handle stress in healthy and effective ways. While people may react differently depending on their personality and the situation, using positive strategies—like problem-solving, emotional expression, social support, and self-care—can lead to better outcomes and a more resilient life

43. Describe how you would establish a rapport with your client

Establishing Rapport with a Client in Counselling

Establishing rapport is one of the most important steps in the counselling process. It involves creating a safe, trusting, and respectful relationship where the client feels comfortable to open up, express themselves honestly, and engage in the therapeutic process. As a counsellor, building rapport sets the foundation for effective communication and meaningful progress. Here’s how I would establish rapport with a client:

1. Create a Warm and Welcoming Environment
I would begin by greeting the client warmly and ensuring the counselling space is private, calm, and non-threatening. A comfortable setting helps reduce anxiety and puts the client at ease.

2. Use Positive Body Language
Through good eye contact, an open posture, and gentle facial expressions, I would communicate attentiveness and interest. Nodding and leaning slightly forward when the client speaks shows that I am engaged and present.

3. Show Genuine Interest and Empathy
I would actively listen without interrupting, using encouraging words like “I understand” or “That sounds difficult.” By empathizing with the client’s feelings and showing that I care, I help the client feel heard and respected.

4. Maintain Confidentiality and Trust
I would explain the boundaries of confidentiality at the start of the session to help the client feel secure. Knowing that their information will be kept private builds trust and encourages openness.

5. Use the Client’s Name and Be Respectful
Calling the client by their name and using polite, non-judgmental language helps to personalize the interaction and shows that I value them as an individual.

6. Match the Client’s Pace and Tone
If the client is quiet or nervous, I would speak gently and slowly. If they are more expressive, I would engage with matching energy. This helps the client feel understood and more comfortable.

7. Allow Time to Build Comfort
I would not rush into deep issues immediately. Giving the client time to settle and share at their own pace helps create a safe space where they feel in control of the conversation.

8. Be Honest and Transparent
I would explain the counselling process clearly and answer any questions the client might have. Transparency creates a sense of reliability and trustworthiness.

In summary, establishing rapport is about creating a respectful, empathetic, and supportive environment. When a client feels safe, valued, and understood, they are more likely to engage openly and benefit from the counselling process

44. Identify any five reasons why children misbehave

Reasons Why Children Misbehave

Seeking attention
Children often act out to get noticed, especially if they feel ignored or overlooked. Even negative attention, such as being scolded, may seem better to them than no attention at all.

Testing limits and boundaries
Misbehavior can be a child’s way of exploring how far they can go. If rules are not clearly defined or consistently enforced, children may continue to challenge authority to see where the boundaries lie.

Lack of communication or emotional regulation skills
Young children may not have the words or emotional understanding to express how they feel. As a result, frustration, sadness, or confusion may come out through tantrums, shouting, or defiance.

Imitating behavior from others
Children often learn by observing. If they witness aggressive, disrespectful, or dishonest behavior from adults, peers, or media, they may copy it without realizing it's wrong.

Unmet physical or emotional needs
A child who is hungry, tired, stressed, or feeling unsafe is more likely to misbehave. These underlying needs can overwhelm their ability to stay calm and behave appropriately.

Understanding the root causes of misbehavior helps caregivers and teachers respond with empathy, structure, and guidance that supports the child’s healthy development

45. Explain the key areas of counseling in primary schools.

Key Areas of Counselling in Primary Schools

Counselling in primary schools plays a vital role in supporting the emotional, social, academic, and moral development of young learners. At this stage, children are building their identity, developing relationships, and adjusting to academic demands. Effective counselling services help guide them through these challenges in a healthy and constructive way. Below are the key areas of counselling in primary schools:

Academic Guidance
This involves helping pupils understand how to manage their studies, improve their learning habits, and build a positive attitude toward schoolwork. Counsellors assist in identifying learning difficulties, encouraging goal-setting, and fostering self-motivation. They also work closely with teachers and parents to support children who may be struggling academically.

Personal and Social Development
Counselling supports pupils in developing emotional awareness, self-confidence, and interpersonal skills. It addresses issues such as low self-esteem, peer pressure, bullying, and conflict with friends. Pupils are taught how to express themselves, handle emotions, and build healthy relationships in and outside the classroom.

Behavioral Support
Many primary school children struggle with behavioral issues such as aggression, defiance, or withdrawal. Counsellors help children understand the consequences of their actions and guide them toward more appropriate behaviors. They also work with teachers to create consistent behavior management strategies.

Emotional and Psychological Support
Children may experience emotional stress due to family issues, trauma, grief, or anxiety. Counsellors provide a safe space where they can talk about their feelings and learn coping strategies. Early emotional support helps prevent long-term psychological issues.

Career Awareness and Life Skills
Though still young, primary school pupils can be introduced to basic career awareness and life skills such as decision-making, goal-setting, and responsibility. Counselling helps them begin to understand their interests and abilities, laying the foundation for future career guidance in higher levels.

Moral and Ethical Guidance
Counselling also plays a role in shaping pupils’ character. It reinforces values like honesty, respect, kindness, and responsibility. Counsellors help children understand right from wrong and the importance of ethical behavior in school and the wider community.

In summary, counselling in primary schools is holistic and developmentally appropriate. It nurtures children’s emotional health, supports their academic progress, and helps shape well-adjusted, responsible, and confident individuals.

46. Explain the relationship between Guidance and counselling.

i. Mention anyimerg 5 basic principles of counselling.

ii. State any three aims of counselling

Relationship Between Guidance and Counselling

Guidance and counselling are closely related and often work together to support an individual's overall development, especially in educational settings. Guidance is a broad, preventive and developmental process that involves offering advice, information, and direction to help individuals make informed choices in areas such as academics, careers, and personal growth. Counselling, on the other hand, is a deeper, more personalized process that involves one-on-one or group sessions aimed at helping individuals understand and resolve personal, emotional, or psychological challenges.

While guidance is more general and often provided to groups, counselling is more specific and typically focused on individual needs. The two processes complement each other: guidance may identify a need that requires deeper intervention, which is then addressed through counselling. Together, they help learners grow intellectually, socially, emotionally, and morally.

i. Five Basic Principles of Counselling

Confidentiality – All information shared by the client is kept private unless there is a risk of harm to self or others.
Respect for Individual Differences – Each client is treated with dignity and without judgment, recognizing their unique values and experiences.
Voluntariness – Counselling is most effective when the client willingly seeks help and engages actively in the process.
Client Autonomy – The counsellor supports the client in making their own decisions rather than imposing solutions.
Professional Competence – The counsellor must be adequately trained, skilled, and ethical in providing services.

ii. Three Aims of Counselling

To help individuals understand themselves better and deal with personal issues such as stress, fear, or low self-esteem.
To promote personal growth and development, allowing individuals to make informed and healthy life choices.
To assist in problem-solving and decision-making, especially in areas like education, career, relationships, and behavior.

In essence, counselling empowers individuals to lead more fulfilling and balanced lives by guiding them through challenges with professional support and empath

47. Highlight any six symptoms of anxiety in children

Symptoms of Anxiety in Children

Children experiencing anxiety often show a range of emotional, physical, and behavioral signs that may affect their daily functioning. One common symptom is excessive worry, where a child constantly frets about things like school, health, or family issues, even when there's little reason to be concerned. This worry may seem out of proportion and difficult to control.

Another clear sign is physical complaints such as frequent headaches, stomachaches, or feeling nauseous, especially before school or social events. These symptoms often have no medical explanation and tend to appear during stressful times.

Sleep disturbances are also common. A child may struggle to fall asleep, wake up often during the night, or experience recurring nightmares. Anxiety often keeps their minds overly active, making it hard to relax.

In addition, avoidance behavior may develop. An anxious child might try to avoid specific situations or people that trigger their fear, such as school, public speaking, or social gatherings. This can lead to missed opportunities and academic or social difficulties.

Restlessness and irritability are also frequent symptoms. The child may appear tense, easily frustrated, or unable to sit still. This heightened alertness is the body’s reaction to perceived threats, even when none exist.

Lastly, clinginess or separation anxiety can be a sign, especially in younger children. They may cry excessively, refuse to be apart from parents, or follow caregivers around, fearing something bad will happen if they are left alone.

Recognizing these signs early allows caregivers, teachers, and counsellors to provide timely support and prevent the anxiety from interfering with the child’s growth and development.

48. Describe the four stages of counselling process

Four Stages of the Counselling Process

The counselling process typically follows four structured stages that guide both the counsellor and the client through a journey of understanding, growth, and change. Each stage plays a vital role in ensuring the effectiveness of the counselling experience.

Initial Stage (Relationship Building)
This first stage focuses on establishing trust and rapport between the counsellor and the client. The counsellor creates a warm, welcoming, and non-judgmental environment where the client feels safe to open up. During this stage, the counsellor also explains the counselling process, sets ground rules (like confidentiality), and clarifies goals. The quality of the relationship built at this stage lays the foundation for successful counselling.

Middle Stage (Problem Exploration and Understanding)
In this stage, the counsellor helps the client explore their thoughts, emotions, and behavior in depth. The goal is to identify the underlying issues and understand the causes of the client's challenges. Active listening, empathy, and questioning are used to gain insight into the client’s experiences. This stage may involve identifying patterns, discussing past experiences, and helping the client understand how these impact their current situation.

Working Stage (Intervention and Action Planning)
This is the phase where actual problem-solving and behavioral change take place. The counsellor and client collaborate to develop strategies and coping mechanisms to deal with the issues identified earlier. Goals are refined, and a plan of action is put in place. The client begins to implement these strategies in their life, and the counsellor provides guidance, feedback, and support throughout the process.

Termination Stage (Closure and Follow-up)
In the final stage, the counselling relationship comes to a close. This stage involves reviewing the progress made, evaluating whether the counselling goals have been achieved, and discussing how the client can maintain their growth independently. The counsellor also prepares the client for future challenges and may schedule follow-up sessions if necessary. A healthy closure helps the client leave the process feeling empowered and confident.

Together, these stages provide a structured yet flexible framework that allows the client to move from distress and confusion toward clarity, healing, and personal development

49. State five advantages/importance of group counselling

Advantages/Importance of Group Counselling

Group counselling offers several benefits that contribute to emotional healing, personal growth, and social learning, especially in school or community settings. It creates a supportive environment where individuals with similar concerns can share experiences, learn from one another, and feel less alone in their struggles.

Peer support is one of the major advantages. Participants often realize that others are going through similar challenges, which reduces feelings of isolation and helps normalize their experiences.

Sharing and learning are also key benefits. Group members can offer different perspectives, coping strategies, and feedback, enriching each person's understanding and ability to deal with their own issues.

Improved communication skills naturally develop in a group setting. As members interact, they practice expressing themselves, listening actively, and respecting others' opinions, which are essential social and life skills.

Self-awareness and personal insight are enhanced as individuals reflect on their own behavior through the experiences and feedback of others. Seeing oneself through the eyes of the group can lead to greater understanding and motivation for change.

Cost-effectiveness is another practical advantage. Group counselling allows a counsellor to help multiple people at once, making it a more efficient use of time and resources, especially in schools or large organizations.

Overall, group counselling provides a rich, dynamic space for growth, healing, and mutual support, making it a valuable tool in both educational and therapeutic contexts.

50. By giving relevant examples, Describe the importance of Life Skill and how it should be applied in a school setup.

Importance of Life Skills and Their Application in a School Setup

Life skills are essential abilities that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. In the school setting, life skills empower learners to grow intellectually, socially, emotionally, and morally. These skills go beyond academic knowledge, preparing students to make informed decisions, build healthy relationships, and navigate life’s pressures confidently.

One key importance of life skills is decision-making and problem-solving. For example, a student who learns how to weigh options before acting can make better choices when facing peer pressure or academic challenges. In schools, this can be taught through real-life scenarios in classroom discussions or role-play activities.

Effective communication is another vital life skill. It helps learners express themselves clearly, listen actively, and resolve conflicts peacefully. A student who can calmly explain their feelings during a disagreement with a peer is more likely to build stronger friendships. Teachers can integrate this by encouraging open dialogue during group work and debates.

Self-awareness and emotional regulation allow students to understand their strengths, weaknesses, and emotions. For instance, a learner who knows they get anxious before exams can learn breathing techniques or seek help early. Schools can support this through counselling sessions or mindfulness programs.

Empathy and interpersonal skills are important for promoting respect and cooperation. A student who can see things from another person’s point of view is less likely to bully others and more likely to offer support. Schools can build empathy through storytelling, group counselling, or peer mentoring.

Lastly, critical thinking and resilience help students adapt and recover from failure. When learners face poor academic performance or social rejection, resilience helps them bounce back and try again. Schools can encourage this by creating a supportive environment where mistakes are seen as learning opportunities.

In conclusion, life skills are essential for nurturing responsible, confident, and emotionally balanced learners. In a school setup, they should be applied across the curriculum, in co-curricular activities, and through guidance and counselling programs. By intentionally teaching and modeling life skills, schools prepare students not just for exams, but for life

51. Analyze five skills that are essential in coping with life challenges.

Skills Essential in Coping with Life Challenges

Coping with life challenges requires more than just knowledge—it demands practical, emotional, and social abilities that help individuals adapt to difficult situations, make sound decisions, and maintain a healthy mental and emotional state. These skills, often referred to as life skills, are crucial for personal resilience and well-being. Below are key skills essential in managing life’s challenges:

Problem-solving skills enable individuals to assess a situation, identify possible solutions, and take action. When faced with challenges such as conflict with friends or academic pressure, being able to analyze the problem calmly and choose an effective solution reduces stress and promotes better outcomes.

Decision-making skills are equally important. Life is full of choices—some simple, others complex. A person who knows how to evaluate options, consider consequences, and make informed decisions is better equipped to avoid risky behaviors and handle responsibilities effectively.

Self-awareness helps individuals recognize their emotions, strengths, weaknesses, and triggers. For example, a student who knows they feel anxious before speaking in public can take steps to prepare and manage their nerves. This internal understanding allows for better self-control and personal growth.

Emotional regulation is the ability to manage feelings like anger, sadness, or frustration in healthy ways. Instead of reacting impulsively or aggressively, individuals with this skill can pause, reflect, and choose a constructive response—even under pressure.

Resilience is the capacity to bounce back from setbacks, failure, or disappointment. Whether it's failing an exam or facing rejection, resilient people learn from the experience and keep moving forward. Building resilience is key to long-term success and emotional health.

Effective communication helps individuals express themselves clearly, listen actively, and build positive relationships. This is critical in resolving conflicts, asking for help, and maintaining strong social support networks, especially during hard times.

Empathy allows a person to understand and share the feelings of others. This promotes kindness, cooperation, and healthy relationships—important factors in overcoming social challenges and maintaining emotional stability.

Stress management skills—such as relaxation techniques, time management, or physical activity—are essential in coping with everyday pressures. These tools help reduce anxiety and maintain focus during difficult periods.

In conclusion, coping with life challenges requires a combination of emotional, social, and cognitive skills. Teaching and practicing these skills—both at home and in schools—equips individuals to navigate life’s ups and downs with confidence, strength, and wisdom

52. Discuss FIVE counselling skills that a counsellor can use in a counselling session.

Counselling Skills That a Counsellor Can Use in a Counselling Session

Effective counselling relies on a set of core skills that enable the counsellor to build trust, understand the client's concerns, and guide them toward growth and positive change. These skills are essential for creating a safe, respectful, and productive environment in which the client feels heard and supported. Below are some of the most important counselling skills used during a session:

Active Listening
This is the foundation of any successful counselling session. Active listening means giving full attention to the client, not just hearing their words but understanding the meaning and emotion behind them. It involves nodding, maintaining eye contact, and using verbal cues like “I see” or “Go on” to show engagement. It helps the client feel valued and encourages them to open up.

Empathy
Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of the client from their point of view. It involves showing compassion and a non-judgmental attitude. A counsellor who is empathetic makes the client feel understood, which helps build trust and emotional safety.

Questioning
Asking the right questions helps explore the client’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in depth. Open-ended questions like “How did that make you feel?” or “What do you think led to that decision?” encourage discussion, while closed questions are used to clarify specific details.

Paraphrasing and Summarizing
Paraphrasing involves restating what the client has said in the counsellor’s own words to show understanding and encourage further reflection. Summarizing pulls together key points discussed in the session, helping both the client and counsellor stay focused and track progress.

Clarification
This involves asking the client to explain something more clearly when their message is confusing or unclear. It ensures that the counsellor fully understands what the client is trying to communicate and avoids misunderstandings.

Genuineness (Congruence)
Being genuine means being honest and transparent with the client. A counsellor who is real and sincere creates an atmosphere of authenticity, which strengthens the counselling relationship and builds credibility.

Silence
Strategic use of silence gives the client time to think, reflect, and process emotions. It shows that the counsellor is patient and that the client is in control of the pace of the conversation.

Non-verbal Communication
Facial expressions, posture, gestures, and tone of voice all play a role in conveying support and understanding. A calm tone and open body language can make the client feel safe and accepted.

Reflection of Feelings
This skill involves identifying and naming the emotions the client is expressing. For example, saying “It sounds like you’re feeling overwhelmed” helps clients become more aware of their emotional state and encourages emotional exploration.

Confrontation (Used Gently)
When necessary, the counsellor may challenge inconsistencies in the client’s words or behavior to help them face reality and grow. This must be done respectfully and with sensitivity, to encourage insight without causing defensiveness.

In summary, counselling skills are essential tools that help the counsellor connect with the client, explore their concerns, and guide them toward self-understanding and positive change. These skills, when used effectively, create a strong therapeutic alliance that supports the counselling process

53. Describe five challenges experienced by teacher -counsellor in the delivery of guidance and counselling services in the school.

Challenges Experienced by Teacher-Counsellors in the Delivery of Guidance and Counselling Services in Schools

Teacher-counsellors play a vital role in promoting the emotional, academic, and social well-being of students. However, they often face numerous challenges that hinder the effective delivery of guidance and counselling services in school settings.

Role conflict and workload is a major challenge. Many teacher-counsellors are expected to manage full teaching responsibilities while also providing counselling services. Balancing both roles becomes overwhelming, leading to burnout and limited time for quality counselling interactions.

Lack of training and professional development affects the quality of counselling provided. In many schools, teacher-counsellors may have limited or no formal training in counselling techniques, ethics, or mental health issues. Without ongoing professional support, they may struggle to handle complex student needs effectively.

Inadequate resources and facilities are another significant barrier. Counselling requires private, quiet spaces to ensure confidentiality and comfort. However, many schools lack proper counselling rooms, reference materials, and tools necessary for delivering professional services.

Stigma and negative attitudes toward counselling can also hinder effectiveness. Some students, parents, or even fellow teachers may view counselling as a service only for “problem” students. This perception discourages students from seeking help and reduces the overall impact of the programme.

Confidentiality concerns are common in school environments. Teacher-counsellors who are also part of the teaching staff may find it difficult to maintain professional boundaries and confidentiality, especially in close-knit school communities. This can reduce students' trust and willingness to open up.

Lack of administrative and parental support weakens the counselling structure. When school leadership does not prioritize guidance and counselling, it results in limited funding, minimal scheduling, and lack of recognition. Similarly, if parents do not understand or support counselling services, they may refuse consent or cooperation.

High student-to-counsellor ratio is another major challenge. In many schools, especially in densely populated areas, one teacher-counsellor may be responsible for hundreds of students. This makes it nearly impossible to provide personalized, timely, and effective support.

In conclusion, while teacher-counsellors are essential to student development, they face numerous challenges that impact their ability to offer quality guidance and counselling services. Addressing these challenges requires more training opportunities, better infrastructure, supportive policies, and greater awareness among school stakeholders

54. Describe five counselling technique drawn from the psychoanalytic approach which teachers may use during therapy.

Five Counselling Techniques Drawn from the Psychoanalytic Approach That Teachers May Use During Therapy

The psychoanalytic approach, developed by Sigmund Freud, focuses on exploring unconscious thoughts, early childhood experiences, and internal conflicts that influence current behavior. Although teachers are not trained psychoanalysts, they can adopt simplified versions of key psychoanalytic techniques to support learners' emotional development and address behavioral or psychological challenges. Here are five such techniques:

Free Association
This technique involves encouraging the student to speak freely about any thoughts, feelings, or memories that come to mind, without filtering or judgment. The goal is to uncover hidden emotions or unresolved conflicts. For instance, a student who keeps talking about “being left alone” may be expressing underlying feelings of abandonment or neglect at home. The teacher-counsellor listens attentively to identify recurring themes that may need further exploration.

Dream Analysis
Children may sometimes share dreams that reflect their inner worries or fears. Through dream analysis, the teacher-counsellor can help the student explore the symbols or emotions in the dream to understand what might be troubling them subconsciously. For example, a dream about being chased might reflect anxiety or fear related to school or home life. While teachers should avoid deep interpretation, they can gently ask the child how the dream made them feel and relate it to their current concerns.

Interpretation
Interpretation involves helping the student connect their current thoughts or behaviors with past experiences or unconscious feelings. A teacher-counsellor might notice that a student becomes overly anxious before tests and explore whether this anxiety relates to past failures or pressure from home. By gently pointing out these connections, the student may gain insight and begin to manage their emotions more effectively.

Catharsis
Catharsis is the emotional release that occurs when a student talks openly about painful or repressed feelings. By expressing emotions such as anger, sadness, or fear in a safe environment, students may experience relief and greater self-awareness. For example, a student who cries during a session while talking about a loss may feel lighter and more in control afterward.

Transference Awareness
Transference occurs when a student unknowingly projects feelings they have toward important people (like parents) onto the teacher-counsellor. Being aware of this helps the teacher understand the emotional dynamics at play. For instance, if a student becomes unusually attached or angry toward the counsellor, it may reflect unresolved issues with a caregiver. Handling this gently and professionally can strengthen trust and help the student work through those emotions.

These techniques, when used carefully and appropriately, can help teacher-counsellors support students more effectively, especially those struggling with emotional or behavioral issues rooted in deeper psychological concerns

55. Outline and explain the structure of personality in the psychoanalytic theory.

Structure of Personality in the Psychoanalytic Theory

The psychoanalytic theory, developed by Sigmund Freud, explains human behavior and personality as the result of interactions among three key components of the mind: the id, the ego, and the superego. These three elements form the structure of personality and constantly interact to influence thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Id
The id is the primitive and instinctual part of the personality that operates on the pleasure principle. It seeks immediate gratification of basic drives and desires such as hunger, aggression, and pleasure. Present from birth, the id is unconscious and does not consider reality, morality, or consequences. For example, a child crying for food or throwing a tantrum when denied a toy is acting under the influence of the id.

Ego
The ego is the rational and realistic part of the personality that operates on the reality principle. It develops as the child grows and learns that not all desires can be immediately fulfilled. The ego mediates between the unrealistic demands of the id and the moral expectations of the superego, making practical decisions based on the situation. For example, a student who wants to skip class but chooses to stay and study is using their ego to balance desire and responsibility.

Superego
The superego is the moral component of the personality. It develops later in childhood, often through parental guidance, cultural norms, and societal expectations. The superego strives for perfection and judges actions as right or wrong, rewarding with pride or punishing with guilt. For example, a child who feels guilty after lying is influenced by the superego’s sense of morality.

In summary, the id seeks pleasure, the ego seeks reality, and the superego seeks morality. A healthy personality results when these three parts are balanced. If one dominates, it may lead to behavioral or emotional problems. For instance, a person dominated by the id may act impulsively, while someone controlled by the superego may feel overly anxious or guilty. Understanding this structure helps counsellors explore and address the inner conflicts that affect a person's behavior and emotional well-being

56. Compare and contrast Behavioral and the Rational Emotive Behavioral Theories of counselling.

Comparison and Contrast of Behavioral and Rational Emotive Behavioral Theories of Counselling

Both Behavioral Theory and Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT) are influential approaches in counselling and psychology. They are rooted in helping individuals change problematic behavior and thought patterns, but they differ in their core focus and techniques. Here's a detailed comparison and contrast:

Similarities

Focus on Change
Both theories aim to modify unhealthy behaviors and promote personal growth. They are action-oriented and emphasize practical strategies to improve clients’ lives.

Present-Centered
Behavioral and REBT approaches focus on current problems rather than exploring deep unconscious processes or past experiences, making them suitable for short-term counselling.

Use of Structured Techniques
Each theory uses structured, goal-directed techniques such as homework assignments, behavioral experiments, and skill-building exercises to help clients make progress.

Emphasis on Learning
Both models are based on the idea that unwanted behaviors or thoughts are learned and therefore can be unlearned or replaced with healthier alternatives.

Differences

Core Focus
Behavioral Theory focuses mainly on observable behavior and how it is shaped by environmental stimuli and reinforcement. It does not deal much with internal thoughts or emotions.

REBT, on the other hand, emphasizes the role of irrational beliefs and self-defeating thoughts in creating emotional distress. It addresses how people’s thinking patterns contribute to their feelings and actions.

Founders and Roots
Behavioral Theory is rooted in the work of B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, and John Watson, focusing on conditioning and reinforcement.
REBT was developed by Albert Ellis and is based on the principle that “people are not disturbed by events, but by the views they take of them.”

Techniques Used
Behavioral counselling uses techniques like reinforcement, punishment, modeling, and systematic desensitization to change behavior.
REBT uses techniques like disputing irrational beliefs, cognitive restructuring, and ABC model (Activating event – Beliefs – Consequences) to challenge and change negative thought patterns.

View of Human Nature
Behavioral Theory views behavior as primarily shaped by environment and conditioning, often downplaying the role of free will.
REBT sees people as capable of rational thought and believes that through effort and insight, individuals can change their thinking and emotional responses.

Conclusion

Behavioral Theory and REBT both offer powerful tools for helping clients cope with life’s challenges, but they approach problems from different angles. Behavioral counselling is best for modifying specific actions through reinforcement, while REBT is effective for addressing emotional and psychological distress caused by irrational beliefs. In practice, counsellors often integrate elements of both to provide a more comprehensive and effective intervention

57. Highlight five factors to consider when setting up a Guidance and Counselling programmes.

Factors to Consider When Setting Up a Guidance and Counselling Programme

Establishing an effective guidance and counselling programme in a school or institution requires thoughtful planning and consideration of various factors to ensure it meets the needs of students and aligns with educational goals. Below are key factors to consider:

Needs Assessment
Before setting up the programme, it is essential to conduct a needs assessment to identify the specific challenges students face—such as academic stress, behavioral issues, career confusion, or emotional struggles. This helps shape the focus and objectives of the programme.

Qualified Personnel
Having trained and competent counsellors is vital. These professionals should have proper certification, knowledge of counselling theories, ethical standards, and the ability to work with diverse student populations.

Administrative Support
The success of a counselling programme depends heavily on strong support from school administration. Leadership should allocate resources, give counselling a respected place in the school structure, and integrate it into school planning and policy.

Physical Facilities and Resources
A guidance and counselling programme requires a private, quiet, and well-equipped space for sessions to ensure confidentiality and comfort. Access to materials like reference books, forms, and stationery is also important for effective delivery.

Awareness and Sensitization
Students, teachers, and parents need to be made aware of the programme's purpose and services. Awareness campaigns, orientations, or workshops can reduce stigma and encourage participation.

Programme Structure and Objectives
The programme should have clear goals, roles, and guidelines outlining how services will be delivered (individual, group sessions, career talks, etc.). There should also be a schedule that allows students to access counselling without interfering with academic activities.

Cultural and Social Sensitivity
The counselling programme should respect the cultural, religious, and social backgrounds of the students and community. Approaches must be inclusive and adaptable to diverse needs.

Monitoring and Evaluation
There should be a system for ongoing assessment to measure the effectiveness of the programme. Feedback from students, teachers, and parents helps improve services and maintain relevance.

Collaboration with Stakeholders
Effective programmes involve collaboration with parents, teachers, health workers, and external counsellors. This helps in creating a strong support network for students.

Policy and Ethical Guidelines
Counsellors must operate within established ethical codes, such as maintaining confidentiality, respecting client autonomy, and setting professional boundaries. Clear school policies should support these standards.

By considering these factors, schools can develop a guidance and counselling programme that effectively supports student well-being, enhances academic achievement, and promotes holistic development.

58. Explain FIVE steps to follow when setting a guidance and counselling program in school

Five Steps to Follow When Setting Up a Guidance and Counselling Program in School

Establishing a structured and effective guidance and counselling program in a school requires careful planning and implementation. Below are five essential steps to follow:

1. Conduct a Needs Assessment
The first step is to identify the specific challenges and needs of the students. This can be done through surveys, interviews with teachers and students, academic performance reviews, and observation. The assessment helps determine the focus areas of the program—whether academic guidance, career counselling, personal development, or psychosocial support.

2. Develop a Clear Program Plan
Once the needs are identified, the next step is to design a comprehensive program plan. This includes defining the vision, mission, goals, and specific objectives of the guidance and counselling program. The plan should also outline the types of services to be offered (e.g., individual counselling, group sessions, career talks), the target audience, and expected outcomes.

3. Allocate Resources and Infrastructure
For the program to be effective, it must be supported with the right resources. This involves identifying and training qualified teacher-counsellors, setting up a private and well-equipped counselling office, and providing materials such as counselling forms, educational materials, and reference guides. Administrative support is also crucial in budgeting and prioritizing counselling in the school schedule.

4. Implement the Program Activities
With planning and resources in place, the school can begin to implement counselling activities. These may include orientation for new students, peer counselling training, life skills sessions, career guidance workshops, and individual counselling sessions. Implementation should be coordinated with teachers and integrated into the school calendar without disrupting academic work.

5. Monitor, Evaluate, and Improve
The final step is to put in place a system for continuous monitoring and evaluation. Collect feedback from students, teachers, and parents to measure the effectiveness of the program. Use the findings to adjust the approach, improve services, and ensure the program continues to meet the evolving needs of learners.

By following these five steps, schools can establish a guidance and counselling program that is practical, student-centered, and impactful in promoting academic success, emotional well-being, and personal growth

59. Giving suitable illustrations, explain the following counseling skills.

i. Focusing

ii. Summarizing

iii. Immediacy

iv. Confrontation

Counselling Skills with Illustrations

Effective counselling involves a range of skills that help the counsellor understand the client, maintain the flow of conversation, and guide the client toward self-awareness and solutions. Below is an explanation of four important counselling skills, along with suitable illustrations.

i. Focusing
Focusing is the ability to help the client stay on the main issue or return to the key topic when they become distracted or go off-course. It ensures that the counselling session remains productive and goal-oriented.

Illustration:
A student begins talking about difficulties at home but suddenly shifts the conversation to school sports and friends. The counsellor gently says, “I notice you started talking about your home situation earlier. Would you be comfortable going back to that so we can explore it further?” This helps bring the student’s attention back to the core issue.

ii. Summarizing
Summarizing is when the counsellor briefly pulls together the main points of what the client has said. It helps clarify the discussion, ensures mutual understanding, and transitions the session toward conclusions or the next step.

Illustration:
At the end of a session, a counsellor might say, “So today we discussed your feelings of anxiety about exams, your fear of disappointing your parents, and how staying up late has affected your concentration. It seems these are all connected, and we’ll explore some coping strategies in our next session.” This gives the client a sense of direction and closure.

iii. Immediacy
Immediacy involves the counsellor talking about what is happening in the moment within the counselling relationship. It can deepen trust and highlight any unspoken tensions or emotions in the room.

Illustration:
If a student suddenly becomes quiet or withdrawn during the session, the counsellor might say, “I notice you’ve become very quiet after we started discussing your relationship with your father. I wonder how you’re feeling right now?” This draws attention to the here-and-now dynamic and invites emotional expression.

iv. Confrontation
Confrontation is the skill of gently challenging the client when there are inconsistencies in their thoughts, words, or actions. It encourages self-reflection and honesty, but must be used with care and sensitivity.

Illustration:
A student says, “I really want to improve my grades,” but also admits, “I don’t see the point in studying.” The counsellor might respond, “You’ve said that improving your grades is important, but also that studying seems pointless. Can we explore what’s behind that contradiction?” This helps the student become more aware of internal conflicts that may be holding them back.

Each of these counselling skills—focusing, summarizing, immediacy, and confrontation—plays a unique role in deepening understanding, maintaining structure, and promoting meaningful change in the client. Used appropriately, they enhance the counselling process and build a strong therapeutic allianceBottom of Form

60. SOLER” is an acronym that guides counselors to maintain effective body language in counseling sessions. Discuss how you will apply “SOLER” when you are counseling a secondary school student.

Applying “SOLER” in Counselling a Secondary School Student

“SOLER” is a non-verbal communication technique developed by Gerard Egan that helps counsellors demonstrate active listening and presence during a counselling session. It stands for Sit squarely, Open posture, Lean forward, Eye contact, and Relax. This body language approach enhances the counsellor’s ability to connect with the client and create a safe, respectful environment—especially important when working with adolescents in secondary school.

Sit Squarely
As a counsellor, I would position myself directly facing the student during the session, rather than sitting at an angle or behind a desk. This posture communicates that I am fully attentive and available. It reduces any feelings of hierarchy or distance, which is especially important with teenagers who may feel judged or misunderstood.

Open Posture
Maintaining an open body posture, with arms and legs uncrossed, shows that I am approachable and non-defensive. This helps the student feel that I am open to listening and not closed off or rigid. Teenagers, who may already feel vulnerable, need this sense of openness to build trust and express themselves freely.

Lean Forward
Leaning slightly toward the student indicates interest and engagement. It subtly reassures the student that I care about what they are saying and am emotionally present in the moment. This is especially helpful when a student is sharing personal or sensitive issues and needs to feel truly heard.

Eye Contact
Maintaining appropriate eye contact (without staring) helps establish a connection. For secondary school students, I would balance this carefully—ensuring they feel seen and respected without making them uncomfortable. Good eye contact conveys sincerity and encourages the student to keep talking.

Relax
Being physically and emotionally relaxed communicates calmness and confidence. A relaxed posture helps reduce tension in the room, making the student feel safe and at ease. This is particularly valuable for teenagers who may already be nervous or defensive during a counselling session.

In summary, applying the SOLER technique during counselling with a secondary school student allows me to use body language as a powerful tool for building rapport, showing empathy, and creating a supportive space. It ensures that my non-verbal behavior aligns with my verbal communication, enhancing trust and improving the overall effectiveness of the counselling process.

61. Mental health problems are a cause for concern in the society and there is need to identify and help people with mental health problems. Give SIX signs of mental health problems that may be observed in school students.

Signs of Mental Health Problems That May Be Observed in School Students

Mental health challenges among school students can significantly affect their academic performance, behavior, and social relationships. Early identification is essential to provide appropriate support and intervention. Here are six key signs that may indicate a student is experiencing mental health problems:

Withdrawal from Friends and Activities
A student who was once sociable may suddenly isolate themselves, avoid friends, or lose interest in school clubs, sports, or hobbies. This withdrawal may indicate depression, anxiety, or emotional distress.

Sudden Changes in Academic Performance
A noticeable drop in grades, lack of concentration, or missed assignments may signal underlying issues. Students struggling with mental health often find it difficult to focus or stay motivated.

Frequent Mood Swings or Irritability
Extreme changes in mood, including unexplained anger, sadness, or emotional outbursts, can be a red flag. While mood changes are common in adolescence, intense or prolonged shifts may indicate deeper problems.

Changes in Sleep or Eating Habits
Students may appear constantly tired, report insomnia, or show changes in appetite (eating too much or too little). Such changes may point to stress, anxiety, or depression.

Physical Complaints Without Medical Cause
Frequent headaches, stomachaches, or other unexplained physical symptoms might be stress-related. Students may report being sick often to avoid school or stressful situations.

Risky or Self-Destructive Behavior
Engaging in substance use, self-harm, aggression, or other dangerous behaviors is a serious sign. These actions often reflect a student’s attempt to cope with overwhelming emotions or trauma.

Recognizing these signs early allows teachers, counsellors, and parents to intervene and provide the necessary emotional or psychological support, ensuring the student receives care before the condition worsens

62. Counseling is a goal driven activity in the sense that counselees desire to see some outcomes when the process is complete. In this context, elaborate on the following counseling goals: (9 Marks)

i. Enhancement Goals.

ii. Remedial Goals.

iii. Exploratory Goals

Counselling Goals: Enhancement, Remedial, and Exploratory

Counselling is a goal-driven process, meaning that both the counsellor and the client (counselee) work toward specific, desired outcomes. These goals help structure the counselling relationship and ensure that progress can be assessed. The three common counselling goals—Enhancement, Remedial, and Exploratory—each serve a different purpose depending on the client’s needs.

Enhancement Goals
Enhancement goals focus on helping clients improve their functioning, well-being, or personal development, even if they are not currently in crisis. These goals aim to strengthen existing skills, relationships, or abilities so that clients can lead more fulfilling lives. In a school setting, for example, a student may not be struggling academically but might want help with building better time management or leadership skills. Enhancement counselling supports growth, motivation, and self-confidence.

Remedial Goals
Remedial goals are aimed at addressing and correcting problems that already exist. These may include emotional issues such as anxiety, depression, poor behavior, or academic failure. The counsellor helps the client identify the source of the problem and works collaboratively to develop coping strategies or solutions. For instance, a student who is frequently in conflict with teachers may need remedial counselling to explore the causes of their behavior and learn conflict resolution skills.

Exploratory Goals
Exploratory goals help clients gain insight into themselves, their emotions, values, motivations, or options. This type of goal is useful when individuals feel confused, uncertain, or stuck in making decisions. In a school setting, a student unsure about subject choices or future careers may benefit from exploratory counselling, which helps them explore their interests, strengths, and possibilities before making informed choices.

Each of these counselling goals plays a unique role in supporting clients through different life challenges, whether for growth, healing, or self-discovery.

63. Guidance and counseling teachers can do individual or group counseling for students who need help with various challenges. Explain three advantages of individual counseling over group counseling.

Advantages of Individual Counselling Over Group Counselling

Greater Confidentiality
In individual counselling, the student has the freedom to speak openly without fear that their personal issues will be overheard or shared with others. This encourages honesty and deeper emotional expression, which might be limited in a group setting.

Personalized Attention
Individual counselling allows the counsellor to focus entirely on one student’s unique needs, concerns, and circumstances. This tailored approach enables the counsellor to develop specific strategies and interventions that are best suited for that particular student.

Flexibility and Pace
The pace of individual counselling can be adjusted according to the student’s readiness and emotional state. Unlike group counselling, where the process must accommodate multiple individuals, one-on-one sessions can progress more quickly or more slowly depending on the student’s comfort.

Deeper Exploration of Issues
Individual sessions provide a safe space for students to explore deep or sensitive personal matters such as trauma, abuse, anxiety, or family conflict—topics they might be unwilling to share in a group environment.

Stronger Counsellor-Client Relationship
One-on-one counselling builds a stronger rapport and trust between the student and the counsellor. This relationship often leads to better communication, more effective guidance, and greater willingness on the part of the student to accept help and change.

In conclusion, while both individual and group counselling have their place in schools, individual counselling is particularly valuable for addressing personal, complex, or confidential student issues in a more focused and supportive manner

64. Explain the following types of counseling and for each type, give an example of a situation where it is done: (9 Marks)

i. Crisis counseling

ii. Developmental counseling

iii. Preventive counseling

Types of Counseling and Their Applications

Counseling is a versatile process, and different types are used to address various situations and needs. Below, we explain three key types of counselling and provide examples for each.

i. Crisis Counseling
Crisis counseling is a short-term, immediate intervention aimed at helping individuals cope with overwhelming emotions or traumatic events that disrupt their normal functioning. The goal is to help the person regain stability, manage the emotional fallout from a crisis, and prevent further psychological damage.

Example Situation:
A secondary school student experiences a sudden loss of a parent. They may be overwhelmed with grief, shock, and confusion. Crisis counseling would provide immediate emotional support, offer coping strategies, and help the student begin to process their emotions in a safe environment.

ii. Developmental Counseling
Developmental counseling focuses on a person's long-term growth and development. It aims to address emotional, psychological, and behavioral challenges that arise during different stages of life or development. This type of counseling is focused on improving personal skills, enhancing self-awareness, and guiding individuals toward their personal goals, such as academic or career aspirations.

Example Situation:
A high school student feels confused about their future career choices. Developmental counseling would help the student explore their strengths, interests, and values, guiding them toward making informed decisions about their future educational and career path.

iii. Preventive Counseling
Preventive counseling is focused on avoiding potential problems before they arise. It involves proactive interventions to promote mental well-being and teach coping strategies that will help individuals deal with challenges before they escalate into larger issues. This counseling aims to build resilience, healthy coping mechanisms, and emotional intelligence to prevent problems like anxiety, depression, or stress from developing.

Example Situation:
A school implements preventive counseling programs for students to help them develop stress management techniques and emotional regulation skills before high-stakes exams or during transitions like moving from primary to secondary school. This helps students manage any anxiety or pressure they might face in the future.

Each of these counseling types plays a critical role in supporting individuals through different challenges—whether responding to a crisis, guiding them through developmental transitions, or providing proactive support to prevent future difficulties.

65. Explain five responsibilities of school guidance and counselling program/office

Responsibilities of a School Guidance and Counselling Program/Office

A well-structured school guidance and counselling program plays a vital role in supporting the academic, emotional, and social well-being of students. It aims to ensure that students have the necessary support to thrive in a school environment. Below are the primary responsibilities of a school guidance and counselling program:

Academic Support and Career Guidance
The guidance and counselling office helps students with academic planning, identifying their strengths and weaknesses, and offering strategies to improve their academic performance. Counsellors also assist in career exploration by helping students identify their interests, skills, and values, and guiding them in making informed decisions about further studies or careers.

Example: A student struggling with subject selection in high school receives help from the counsellor to match their interests and strengths to potential career paths, ensuring they make an informed choice.

Personal and Social Development
Counselors provide individual and group counseling to address personal and social issues students may face, such as bullying, peer pressure, self-esteem, and relationship challenges. They offer a safe space for students to explore their emotions, build self-confidence, and learn coping skills.

Example: A student experiencing difficulty with peer relationships might attend counseling sessions to learn conflict resolution and communication skills.

Emotional and Mental Health Support
One of the primary responsibilities of the guidance and counselling office is to support students facing emotional and mental health challenges such as anxiety, depression, stress, or trauma. The counsellor provides therapeutic support and, when necessary, refers students to external professionals or resources for more specialized care.

Example: A student who has been struggling with anxiety before exams receives guidance on relaxation techniques and cognitive restructuring to reduce exam stress.

Conflict Resolution and Mediation
Counsellors often play a critical role in resolving conflicts among students or between students and teachers. They facilitate discussions to help parties involved understand each other's perspectives, identify common ground, and work toward a resolution that is acceptable to all.

Example: Two students involved in a bullying incident might meet with the counsellor, who helps mediate a conversation to resolve the conflict and educate both students on appropriate behavior.

Parent and Teacher Support
Guidance and counselling programs also support teachers and parents by providing advice on how to handle difficult situations with students, such as behavioral issues, academic challenges, or mental health concerns. Counselors may conduct workshops for teachers or parents to equip them with the tools to support students effectively.

Example: A teacher struggling with managing a student’s disruptive behavior might work with the counsellor to develop strategies for the student’s engagement in class, ensuring a more positive classroom environment.

Referral and Coordination of External Services
When necessary, school counselors are responsible for referring students to external professionals or resources, such as psychologists, social workers, or mental health clinics. They ensure that students receive comprehensive support for issues that cannot be fully addressed within the school setting.

Example: A student showing signs of severe depression might be referred to a child psychologist for more in-depth therapy, while the counsellor continues to monitor their progress at school.

In conclusion, the school guidance and counselling office is integral to creating a supportive environment that promotes the overall well-being of students. By offering academic, personal, emotional, and social support, counselors help students navigate the challenges of school life and prepare for future success

66. Discuss the following themes of counselling under the following headings :

i. Cases of mal-adjustment

ii. Counselling techniques

Themes of Counselling: Mal-Adjustment and Counselling Techniques

Counselling addresses a wide range of psychological, emotional, and social challenges that individuals, particularly students, may experience. Two key themes that are often explored in counselling include cases of maladjustment and counselling techniques. Each plays an essential role in supporting individuals as they work through their issues and develop healthier coping mechanisms.

i. Cases of Maladjustment
Maladjustment refers to the inability of an individual to effectively adapt to the demands and challenges of life, often leading to emotional distress, behavioral problems, or social isolation. In the context of counselling, maladjustment typically manifests in various ways, and it’s important for counsellors to recognize the underlying causes of such issues.

Emotional and Behavioral Issues
One of the key aspects of maladjustment is the difficulty in regulating emotions or controlling behavior in response to stress or external stimuli. Students who are emotionally dysregulated may display anger issues, anxiety, depression, or impulsive behavior. Maladjusted students may often feel misunderstood, rejected, or overwhelmed by their emotions. For instance, a student who often gets into physical fights at school may be acting out due to family problems, unresolved trauma, or insecurities.

Social Maladjustment
Maladjustment can also manifest in social difficulties, such as the inability to form and maintain healthy relationships with peers or authority figures. For example, a student who isolates themselves from others or engages in bullying behavior may be struggling with feelings of inadequacy or lack of social skills. Their interactions are often distorted by unresolved emotional issues or negative coping mechanisms.

Academic Maladjustment
Academic failure can sometimes be a sign of maladjustment. A student who is unable to focus on studies, procrastinates excessively, or exhibits poor time-management skills may have deeper emotional or psychological issues affecting their motivation and performance. Maladjustment in this area could stem from lack of self-confidence, unresolved family issues, or stress.

ii. Counselling Techniques
Counselling techniques are the various tools and methods used by counselors to help clients address their concerns, achieve personal growth, and develop healthier coping strategies. The choice of technique depends on the client's needs, presenting issues, and the therapeutic approach the counselor follows.

Active Listening
Active listening is one of the most fundamental techniques in counselling. It involves fully focusing on what the client is saying, understanding their message, and responding thoughtfully. This technique helps establish trust, validate the client’s feelings, and make the client feel understood. For example, a student dealing with peer pressure might benefit from having a counsellor who listens attentively to their concerns, allowing them to open up and express their emotions freely.

Cognitive Behavioral Techniques (CBT)
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) focuses on helping individuals identify and change negative thought patterns and behaviors that contribute to emotional distress. Counsellors use CBT techniques to challenge irrational beliefs and replace them with more positive, constructive ways of thinking. For example, a student with anxiety may be taught to recognize and alter thoughts that fuel their fear of failure or social interactions, helping them cope more effectively.

Role-Playing
Role-playing is a technique where clients act out specific scenarios to explore their feelings, reactions, and coping strategies. This can help students practice social skills, conflict resolution, and emotional regulation in a controlled, supportive environment. For instance, a student who struggles with assertiveness may role-play situations where they need to express their opinions or set boundaries.

Solution-Focused Techniques
Solution-Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT) is a short-term approach that emphasizes finding solutions rather than dwelling on problems. In this technique, the counsellor helps the client focus on their strengths and past successes to create realistic and achievable goals for the future. A student struggling with school stress might be guided to explore past instances where they successfully handled challenges, reinforcing their belief in their ability to overcome current difficulties.

Gestalt Techniques
Gestalt therapy focuses on present moment awareness and personal responsibility. Counsellors use techniques such as the empty chair technique, where clients might speak to an imagined person (e.g., a parent or friend) to express unspoken feelings or unresolved conflicts. This helps the student gain insight into their emotions and relationships, promoting personal growth and self-awareness.

In conclusion, understanding and addressing cases of maladjustment in students is crucial for effective counselling. By using a range of counselling techniques such as active listening, cognitive-behavioral strategies, role-playing, solution-focused approaches, and Gestalt methods, counsellors can help students work through their challenges and develop healthier ways of coping with life’s difficulties

67. Provide brief explanations to the following:

i. Psychoanalytic theory (4marks)

ii. Humanistic theory (3marks)

iii. Behaviour theory

i. Psychoanalytic Theory (4 Marks)
Psychoanalytic theory, developed by Sigmund Freud, posits that human behavior is largely influenced by unconscious thoughts, feelings, and past experiences, particularly from early childhood. It emphasizes the role of internal conflicts, repressed memories, and unresolved psychological issues in shaping an individual's behavior and personality. The theory is structured around three main components of the psyche: the id, which is driven by basic impulses and desires; the ego, which seeks to mediate between the id and reality; and the superego, which represents moral standards and societal expectations. Psychoanalytic therapy aims to bring unconscious material to conscious awareness through techniques like free association, dream analysis, and transference, helping individuals resolve inner conflicts and achieve psychological growth.

ii. Humanistic Theory (3 Marks)
Humanistic theory, primarily associated with Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, focuses on the individual's potential for growth, self-actualization, and personal fulfillment. It emphasizes a positive view of human nature, suggesting that people are inherently good and capable of making choices to achieve personal growth. The theory is centered on concepts like self-concept, self-worth, and self-actualization—the process of realizing one’s fullest potential. Humanistic therapy, particularly Carl Rogers' person-centered approach, is based on creating a supportive, non-judgmental environment where clients can explore their feelings and develop a more authentic sense of self.

iii. Behaviour Theory (3 Marks)
Behavior theory, also known as behaviorism, is based on the principle that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment. Developed by psychologists like John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Ivan Pavlov, this theory asserts that behaviors are shaped by reinforcement, punishment, and conditioning. In behavior therapy, maladaptive behaviors are seen as learned responses, and the goal is to replace these behaviors with more appropriate ones through techniques like classical conditioning (associating stimuli with responses) and operant conditioning (using rewards and punishments to reinforce or discourage behaviors). The focus is on observable behaviors rather than underlying mental states or emotions

68. Give five differences between individual and group counselling.

Differences Between Individual and Group Counselling

1. Nature of Interaction
In individual counselling, the interaction occurs between just one client and the counsellor. The focus is completely on the individual’s issues, and the counsellor tailors the approach to meet the client’s specific needs. In group counselling, the interaction involves multiple participants with the counsellor facilitating discussions and providing guidance to the group as a whole, not just to one individual.

2. Confidentiality
Confidentiality in individual counselling is maintained entirely between the counsellor and the client, with no external parties involved. In group counselling, confidentiality is shared among all group members. While the counsellor ensures the space is safe, it depends on all group members to respect confidentiality, which can be a challenge.

3. Pace of Sessions
In individual counselling, the pace is determined by the individual’s needs, allowing for a more flexible and personalized approach. In group counselling, the pace is often dictated by the collective needs of the group, which means that some individuals might not be able to address their personal concerns as deeply or quickly.

4. Type of Support
In individual counselling, the client receives direct, focused support from the counsellor. This creates a very personal connection. In group counselling, participants benefit from mutual support and shared experiences with other group members, learning from others and realizing they are not alone in their struggles.

5. Cost and Accessibility
Individual counselling tends to be more expensive as it requires dedicated time from the counsellor for a one-on-one session. Group counselling, on the other hand, is typically more affordable because the cost is shared among the participants. It also provides an opportunity for people who might not have access to individual therapy due to financial constraints

Tr.MIKE

Thursday, July 31, 2025

EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

Right to Confidentiality

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INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL NEEDS

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