Thursday, July 31, 2025

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

 

1.      Define discourse analysis.

Discourse analysis is the study of how language is used in texts and conversations to communicate meaning within specific social, cultural, and historical contexts. It goes beyond just the words and grammar to examine how language reflects power relations, identities, ideologies, and social structures.

In other words, discourse analysis looks at how people use language—spoken, written, or visual—to achieve specific purposes, influence others, and construct realities in various settings such as politics, media, education, and everyday life.

2.      Examine the arguments advanced by scholars on the supremacy of spoken discourse over written one.

  The debate over the supremacy of spoken discourse over written discourse is a longstanding one, engaging scholars across linguistics, philosophy, communication studies, and literary theory. Some scholars have argued that spoken discourse is more "natural" or "primary," while others have contested that view. Below is an examination of key arguments advanced in favor of the supremacy of spoken discourse, alongside scholarly support:

1. Historical and Evolutionary Primacy

  • Argument: Spoken language predates written language by tens of thousands of years. Human beings developed speech naturally, while writing had to be invented and taught.
  • Scholars:
    • Ferdinand de Saussure emphasized that spoken language is the natural form of linguistic expression, and writing is merely a representation of speech.
    • Walter Ong in Orality and Literacy argues that orality is the primary mode of communication and that writing restructures consciousness in ways that are unnatural or secondary.

2. Naturalness and Accessibility

  • Argument: Speaking is innate and universal among humans, whereas literacy requires formal education and is not equally accessible to all.
  • Scholars:
    • Noam Chomsky's theory of a universal grammar suggests that humans are biologically wired for language (i.e., speech), but not for writing.
    • Lev Vygotsky pointed out that language development in children begins with speech and is fundamental to thought formation

3. Contextual Richness and Paralinguistic Features

  • Argument: Spoken discourse allows for immediate feedback, tone, intonation, pauses, gestures, and facial expressions, which enrich communication.
  • Scholars:
    • Dell Hymes emphasized the role of context in communicative competence, which is more dynamic in spoken interaction.
    • Erving Goffman highlighted the social and performative aspects of face-to-face communication in his interactionist theories.

4. Real-Time Interaction and Negotiation of Meaning

  • Argument: Spoken discourse allows interlocutors to co-construct meaning in real-time, adapting to misunderstandings or feedback.
  • Scholars:
    • Mikhail Bakhtin valued dialogic interaction as a space where meaning is negotiated rather than fixed, as often occurs in written texts.
    • Deborah Tannen discusses how spontaneous speech reflects interpersonal relationships and the social dynamics of discourse.

5. Cultural Transmission and Memory

  • Argument: Oral traditions were historically crucial for the transmission of culture, values, and history before literacy was widespread.
  • Scholars:
    • Jack Goody and Ian Watt argued that oral societies relied on memory, repetition, and formulaic expressions to preserve knowledge.
    • Walter Ong again supports the idea that oral cultures developed sophisticated rhetorical and mnemonic strategies to sustain knowledge.

Conclusion

While many scholars have argued for the supremacy of spoken discourse based on its evolutionary, cognitive, and interactive advantages, others challenge this notion by pointing to the permanence, complexity, and reach of written discourse. However, in examining the supremacy of speech, key arguments emphasize its naturalness, immediacy, richness of expression, and primacy in human communication.

Would you like a counterpoint on the supremacy of written discourse for a balanced discussion?

3.      With relevant examples, analyze the different types of cohesion as proposed by Hiladay and Hasan(1976)

  Reference is a cohesive device that links elements in a text by using pronouns or determiners that refer to something mentioned earlier or later. It includes personal, demonstrative, and comparative references. For example, in the sentence “John went to the market. He bought some apples,” the pronoun “he” refers back to “John”, creating a link between the two sentences.

Substitution involves replacing a word or phrase with another word to avoid repetition. This replacement can be nominal (replacing a noun), verbal (replacing a verb), or clausal (replacing a clause). For instance, in “I need a pen. Do you have one?” the word “one” substitutes for “a pen”, maintaining cohesion without repetition.

Ellipsis occurs when part of a sentence is omitted because it is understood from the context. Like substitution, ellipsis avoids redundancy but involves leaving out words entirely. For example, in the dialogue “Are you going to the party?” “Yes, I am,” the verb “going to the party” is omitted in the second sentence but understood, maintaining coherence between the two.

Conjunction connects clauses, sentences, or paragraphs by signaling relationships such as addition, contrast, cause, or time. Conjunctive devices include words like and, but, because, and however. In “She studied hard; therefore, she passed the exam,” the word “therefore” signals a cause-and-effect relationship, linking the two ideas cohesively.

Lexical cohesion is achieved through vocabulary choices and includes repetition, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and collocation. This type of cohesion binds a text together through consistent or related word use. For example, in “The child was playing with a toy. The toy was colorful and new,” the repetition of “toy” strengthens the lexical ties between the sentences. Similarly, using synonyms such as “purchase” and “buy” in a text creates a cohesive lexical relationship.

4.      Discuss the five cohesive devices as proposed by Haliday.

 Halliday and Hasan (1976) identified five key cohesive devices that function to link ideas and maintain unity in both spoken and written discourse. These devices help ensure that sentences relate logically to each other, allowing a text to flow smoothly and meaningfully.

The first of these is reference, which involves the use of pronouns, demonstratives, and other markers to point to something within or outside the text. Reference can be anaphoric, pointing backward to something already mentioned, or cataphoric, pointing forward to something yet to be introduced. For instance, in the sentence “Maria loves gardening. She spends hours in the backyard,” the word “she” refers back to “Maria,” creating a link between the two statements.

Another device is substitution, where a word or phrase is replaced by another to avoid repetition. This device allows for variation in expression while maintaining cohesion. For example, in “I ordered the steak. My friend ordered the same,” the word “same” substitutes for “steak,” tying the two clauses together without repeating the original noun.

Closely related is ellipsis, which involves the omission of elements that are understood from context. Rather than repeating words unnecessarily, ellipsis allows speakers or writers to leave out material that the audience can infer. In the exchange “Are you coming to the party?” followed by “I might,” the words “come to the party” are omitted in the second sentence but understood, preserving cohesion without redundancy.

Conjunction is another vital device, linking clauses, sentences, or paragraphs through logical relations such as addition, contrast, cause, or time. Words like “and,” “but,” “because,” and “therefore” serve this function. In a sentence like “He studied hard, so he passed the exam,” the word “so” provides a causal link, showing the relationship between effort and result.

Lastly, lexical cohesion is achieved through the selection of vocabulary that ties different parts of a text together. This can occur through repetition of words, use of synonyms or antonyms, and associations within a lexical field. For example, in “The child found a kitten. The little animal was cold and hungry,” the words “child,” “kitten,” and “animal” are connected through semantic relationships, helping to build a cohesive narrative.

Together, these cohesive devices contribute to the overall texture of a text, making it more unified and easier to follow. They operate at different levels—some grammatical, others lexical—but all serve the common purpose of linking ideas and creating meaningful communication.

5.      Critically evaluate the units of spoken discourse according to the Birmingham school model of discourse analysis.

    The Birmingham School model of discourse analysis, developed primarily by Sinclair and Coulthard (1975), offers a structured approach to analyzing spoken discourse, particularly in classroom settings. This model identifies hierarchical units of interaction and focuses on the structure and function of utterances in spoken communication. A critical evaluation of this model involves examining its key components, strengths, and limitations.

The model is based on a five-level rank scale: lesson, transaction, exchange, move, and act. At the top is the lesson, the entire discourse event, usually a classroom lesson. This consists of transactions, which represent shifts in topic or phase of the lesson. Each transaction is made up of exchanges, which are the basic interactive units typically following a three-part structure: Initiation–Response–Feedback (IRF). Within exchanges are moves (individual turns or parts of turns), and moves are further broken down into acts (the smallest meaningful units, like a question or a command).

One of the strengths of the Birmingham model is its ability to systematically analyze spoken interactions, especially in institutional settings like classrooms. The IRF structure is particularly useful in highlighting the authoritative and evaluative role of the teacher. For instance, in the sequence:
Teacher: What is the capital of France? (Initiation)
Student: Paris. (Response)
Teacher: Correct. (Feedback)
—this structure clearly reveals the power dynamics and the pedagogic function of each move.

However, the model has been criticized for its limited applicability beyond formal, institutional discourse. Real-life spoken interactions—especially in informal or non-hierarchical settings—often do not follow the predictable IRF pattern. For example, in casual conversations or peer discussions, exchanges may not have clear initiation or feedback moves, and the structure may be more fluid or overlapping.

Another limitation is the model’s structural focus, which tends to downplay the role of context, meaning, and speaker intention. Critics argue that the Birmingham School treats discourse too mechanically, failing to account for the social and cultural dimensions of spoken interaction. For instance, it may not adequately explain humor, sarcasm, or indirectness, which rely heavily on shared context and pragmatic knowledge.

Furthermore, the model assumes a linear and hierarchical organization of discourse, which does not always reflect the dynamic and negotiated nature of spoken language. In many natural conversations, speakers interrupt, overlap, and reformulate their speech, creating patterns that are not easily captured by fixed categories like initiation or feedback.

In conclusion, the Birmingham School model of discourse analysis offers a rigorous framework for analyzing structured spoken discourse, especially in educational settings. Its clear categorization of discourse units allows for systematic study of language use in teacher–student interactions. However, its limitations lie in its rigidity, formal bias, and inadequate attention to interactional and contextual complexity, making it less effective for analyzing the diversity and spontaneity of everyday spoken discourse. For a fuller understanding of spoken language, the model needs to be complemented by approaches that consider pragmatic, sociolinguistic, and conversational factors

6.      Clearly distinguish the features of the five categories of illocutionary acts according to Searle.

   John Searle (1976), building on the work of J.L. Austin, classified illocutionary acts—the core component of a speech act that expresses the speaker’s intention—into five distinct categories. Each category reflects a different communicative purpose and has its own defining features. These categories help identify what a speaker is doing with their words, such as asserting, requesting, promising, or expressing emotion.

Representatives (also known as assertives) are speech acts that commit the speaker to the truth of a proposition. The speaker expresses a belief about the world, aiming to represent reality as they perceive it. These acts can be judged as true or false based on factual accuracy. Common examples include verbs like assert, claim, report, state, and describe. For instance, in the sentence “The Earth revolves around the sun,” the speaker is making a statement they believe to be true.

Directives are used to get the hearer to do something. These acts attempt to influence the listener’s behavior and are only successful if the hearer complies. They reflect the speaker’s wants or needs and can vary in force, from polite suggestions to firm commands. Examples include request, order, advise, invite, and beg. An example is: “Please open the window,” where the speaker is attempting to get the listener to perform an action.

Commissives involve the speaker committing themselves to a future course of action. These acts indicate intention, obligation, or determination and may include both positive and negative commitments. Common commissive verbs include promise, vow, threaten, offer, and guarantee. In the statement “I will call you tomorrow,” the speaker is creating an obligation to perform a future act.

Expressives reveal the speaker’s emotional state or attitude in relation to a particular situation. These acts are not primarily about facts or actions but about feelings. They do not require truth conditions, as they reflect subjective experiences. Examples include apologize, thank, congratulate, welcome, and lament. A typical example is: “I’m sorry for being late,” where the speaker expresses regret.

Declarations are unique in that they bring about a change in the external world simply by being uttered, provided the speaker has the appropriate authority and the context is suitable. These acts alter institutional or social reality through speech alone. Examples include resign, appoint, declare, pronounce, and baptize. An illustrative sentence is: “I now pronounce you husband and wife,” which creates a new social status through the act of speaking. 

7.      Describe the five-scale category of discourse as presented by Searl.

   John Searle, in his theory of speech acts, presents a framework that can be viewed as a five-scale categorization of discourse, reflecting the different functions language performs in communication. These categories are not just linguistic structures but are deeply rooted in speaker intention, social context, and the effect on the listener. Each category represents a way in which utterances can be used to carry out actions in discourse.

One category is known as representatives or assertives, which involve the speaker making a statement that conveys a belief about the world. These utterances commit the speaker to the truth of what is said. They aim to describe reality and can be evaluated as true or false. For example, when someone says, “It is raining,” they are asserting a fact they believe to be accurate.

Another category is directives, which function to get the listener to do something. Here, the speaker’s intention is to influence the hearer’s behavior. These utterances include commands, requests, suggestions, and advice. The success of a directive depends on whether the hearer responds accordingly. An example would be, “Close the door,” where the speaker is trying to prompt an action from the listener.

Commissives represent a third type, where the speaker commits themselves to a future action. These utterances create an obligation or intention on the part of the speaker, regardless of whether the listener demands it. Promises, vows, offers, and threats fall into this category. For instance, saying, “I’ll help you with your homework,” expresses a commitment to a future act.

A fourth category is that of expressives, which are used to convey the speaker’s emotions, attitudes, or psychological states. These acts do not primarily describe the external world or require any action from the hearer; rather, they reveal something internal about the speaker. Examples include apologies, thanks, congratulations, and expressions of sympathy. A sentence like, “I’m sorry for your loss,” illustrates how an expressive functions emotionally within discourse.

Finally, there are declarations, which are distinctive in that they do not merely describe reality or express intent—they actually bring about a change in the world by the very act of being spoken. For a declaration to be successful, the speaker must have the appropriate institutional authority and the context must be suitable. Statements like “You are hereby fired” or “I now declare the meeting open” are not just utterances; they enact something socially or institutionally real.

Searle’s five categories of discourse provide a comprehensive framework for understanding the pragmatic functions of language, demonstrating how speech is not merely a vehicle for information, but a powerful tool for performing actions, shaping relationships, and transforming reality within specific social contexts.

8.      Explain the three levels in which speech acts can be analyzed.

   Speech acts can be analyzed on three distinct levels, each revealing a different aspect of how language functions in communication. These levels help us understand not just what is said, but what is meant and what effect it has in interaction. The three levels are the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, and the perlocutionary act.

The first level, the locutionary act, involves the actual act of producing sounds, words, and sentences with a certain meaning. It refers to the basic act of uttering a phrase that has a specific sense and reference. This level focuses on the literal meaning of the utterance—the actual linguistic content as encoded in the language’s grammar and vocabulary. For example, when someone says, “It’s cold in here,” the locutionary act is simply stating a fact about the temperature.

The second level, the illocutionary act, is the core of speech act theory and concerns the intended communicative function behind the utterance. It is what the speaker does by saying something—the intended meaning or the social action performed, such as requesting, promising, ordering, or apologizing. Continuing with the example, “It’s cold in here” might function as a request to close the window, depending on the speaker’s intention. This level captures the purpose of the utterance beyond its literal meaning.

The third level, the perlocutionary act, focuses on the effect the utterance has on the listener. It concerns the actual impact or response the speech act produces, which may or may not align with the speaker’s intention. For instance, the statement “It’s cold in here” might lead the listener to close the window, agree, or even ignore the remark. The perlocutionary act includes effects such as persuading, frightening, amusing, or inspiring the hearer.

Together, these three levels provide a comprehensive framework for analyzing speech acts. The locutionary act deals with the utterance itself, the illocutionary act with the speaker’s intended function, and the perlocutionary act with the real-world consequences or reactions triggered by the speech. Understanding these layers helps clarify the complexity and richness of human communication.

9.      In issuing an utterance a speaker can perform three acts simultaneously ,state and explain these three acts with two examples for each.

   When a speaker issues an utterance, they can simultaneously perform three types of acts: the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, and the perlocutionary act. These acts represent different aspects of the communication process—what is said, what is meant, and what effect it has.

The locutionary act is the actual act of producing meaningful sounds, words, and sentences—the basic act of uttering something with a specific linguistic meaning. It involves the form and content of the utterance, including its phonetic, syntactic, and semantic properties. For example, if someone says, “It’s raining outside,” the locutionary act is the simple statement about the weather.

The illocutionary act is the speaker’s intended function or purpose behind the utterance. This is what the speaker is doing by saying the words—such as requesting, promising, warning, or apologizing. For example, the utterance “It’s raining outside” might function as a warning to take an umbrella, or a suggestion to postpone outdoor plans.

The perlocutionary act refers to the effect the utterance has on the listener—the actual outcome or response it produces. This may include persuading, frightening, amusing, or inspiring the hearer. For example, saying “It’s raining outside” might cause someone to take an umbrella, feel disappointed about canceled plans, or decide to stay indoors.

Examples:

Example 1:
Utterance: “Can you close the window?”

  • Locutionary act: Asking a question about the listener’s ability to close the window.
  • Illocutionary act: Making a polite request for the listener to close the window.
  • Perlocutionary act: The listener actually closes the window.

Example 2:
Utterance: “I promise I will call you tomorrow.”

  • Locutionary act: Stating a commitment to call the next day.
  • Illocutionary act: Making a promise.
  • Perlocutionary act: The listener feels reassured and expects a call.

By understanding these three acts, we see how a single utterance can simultaneously carry literal meaning, perform a social function, and influence the listener’s thoughts or actions

10.  Highlight the properties of discourse

   Discourse, as a unit of language beyond the sentence, has several key properties that distinguish it and help us understand how communication works in context. These properties ensure that discourse is meaningful, coherent, and functional. The main properties of discourse include cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, situationality, and intertextuality.

Cohesion refers to the linguistic links that connect sentences and parts of a text together. It involves the use of cohesive devices such as reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical ties to create surface-level connections between ideas, making the discourse flow smoothly.

Coherence goes deeper than cohesion, referring to the overall sense or logical consistency of a discourse. It is the way the content fits together meaningfully, allowing the listener or reader to understand the message as a unified whole. Coherence depends on background knowledge, logical sequencing, and relevance of ideas.

Intentionality involves the purpose and goals of the speaker or writer in producing the discourse. It reflects the speaker’s or writer’s intention to convey a message, persuade, inform, entertain, or achieve some communicative aim.

Acceptability relates to the listener’s or reader’s willingness to accept and engage with the discourse. A discourse is acceptable if it meets the audience’s expectations, aligns with social norms, and is considered relevant and appropriate within a given context.

Situationality highlights the influence of the context or situation in which discourse occurs. This includes physical setting, participants, cultural background, and social relations that shape the production and interpretation of discourse.

Intertextuality refers to the way discourse connects to and is shaped by other texts or discourses. It acknowledges that texts often reference, echo, or respond to previous discourse, creating a network of meaning beyond the immediate conversation.

Together, these properties help define what makes discourse coherent, meaningful, and effective in communication. They show that discourse is not just a random collection of sentences but a structured and purposeful interaction shaped by language, context, and social factors.

11.  In each of the following sentences. Underline the theme and rheme:

i.                    The party leaders is respected by many

ii.                  Suddenly the teachers slapped the boy

iii.                In the courtroom the lawyer argued his case

  Definition of Theme and Rheme

The theme of a sentence is the starting point of the message—what the sentence is about or what is given information. It usually appears at the beginning and sets the context for what follows.

The rheme is the comment or new information about the theme. It tells us something about the theme and is typically the part of the sentence that carries the main message or focus.

Sentences with Theme and Rheme underlined:

i. The party leaders is respected by many

  • Theme: The party leaders
  • Rheme: is respected by many

ii. Suddenly the teachers slapped the boy

  • Theme: Suddenly
  • Rheme: the teachers slapped the boy

iii. In the courtroom the lawyer argued his case

  • Theme: In the courtroom
  • Rheme: the lawyer argued his case

 

12.  Using the notion of theme and rheme,identify the theme and rheme in the following sentences, indicate the type of theme

The teacher chased the boy.

The boy was chased by the dog

Early this year the university was declared the beat in the region.

The teacher chased the boy.

  • Theme: The teacher
  • Rheme: chased the boy
  • Type of theme: Topical theme (the subject or what the sentence is about)

The boy was chased by the dog.

  • Theme: The boy
  • Rheme: was chased by the dog
  • Type of theme: Topical theme

Early this year the university was declared the best in the region.

  • Theme: Early this year
  • Rheme: the university was declared the best in the region
  • Type of theme: Textual/Temporal theme (sets a time frame, providing situational context

Explanation:

  • A topical theme typically identifies the subject or main topic of the sentence.
  • A textual or temporal theme introduces time, place, or discourse elements that frame the rest of the sentence.

 

13.  Describe the following terms:

i.                    Turn taking

ii.                  Adjacency pairs

iii.                Move

iv.                Speech Acts

v.                  Speech community

   Turn taking
Turn taking refers to the way participants in a conversation manage who speaks and when. It is the system by which speakers alternate turns, ensuring that only one person talks at a time and that the conversation flows smoothly without long pauses or interruptions. Turn taking is governed by social rules and cues such as intonation, eye contact, and pauses.

Adjacency pairs
Adjacency pairs are pairs of related utterances by two different speakers, where the first utterance (the first pair part) prompts or requires a specific type of response (the second pair part). Examples include question-answer, greeting-greeting, or invitation-acceptance/refusal. They are fundamental units of conversation that help maintain structure and coherence.

Move
In discourse analysis, a move is a functional segment or unit within a larger discourse structure, such as a conversation or written text. Moves serve specific communicative purposes and help organize the flow of interaction. For example, in a job interview, a question from the interviewer and the response from the candidate are different moves.

Speech Acts
Speech acts are actions performed through speaking. When people use language, they don’t just say things—they do things like making requests, promises, apologies, or commands. Speech act theory studies how utterances function as actions with intentions and effects beyond their literal meaning.

Speech Community
A speech community is a group of people who share the same language or dialect and have common norms and expectations about how language is used in communication. Members of a speech community understand and follow the same social rules for speaking, interpreting, and responding, which helps facilitate effective communication within the group.

14.  Explain and give examples of each of the following:

        i.            Participants

      ii.            Setting

    iii.            assertive

    iv.            turn taking

      v.            frame and focuss

   Participants
Participants are the people involved in a communication event or discourse. They include speakers, listeners, writers, and readers who take part in the interaction. Participants can influence the nature and outcome of the communication.
Example: In a classroom discussion, the teacher and the students are participants.

Setting
Setting refers to the physical, social, and cultural context in which a communication event takes place. It includes the time, place, environment, and circumstances surrounding the interaction.
Example: A conversation between colleagues in an office during a meeting is shaped by the professional setting.

Assertive
An assertive is a type of speech act where the speaker commits to the truth of a proposition by stating, claiming, or asserting something. It expresses belief or describes reality.
Example: Saying “The sun rises in the east” is an assertive because it states a fact.

Turn taking
Turn taking is the process by which participants in a conversation regulate who speaks when. It ensures that speakers alternate turns in an organized way to maintain smooth communication.
Example: In a phone call, one person speaks while the other listens, then they switch roles, showing turn taking.

Frame and Focus
Frame and focus relate to how information is organized and highlighted within communication. The frame is the background or context that sets the stage, while the focus is the specific part of the message that receives emphasis or is being highlighted as new or important information.
Example: In the sentence “Yesterday, John bought a new car,” “Yesterday” is the frame (context/time), and “John bought a new car” is the focus (new information).

15.  Briefly explain Austins 3 Acts.

   J.L. Austin proposed that every utterance involves three related acts known as the locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts:

  • The locutionary act is the act of saying something with a specific meaning—producing sounds, words, and sentences that form a meaningful utterance.
  • The illocutionary act is the intended function behind the utterance—what the speaker aims to do by saying it, such as asserting, questioning, commanding, or promising.
  • The perlocutionary act is the effect the utterance has on the listener, like persuading, frightening, amusing, or convincing them.

Together, these three acts explain how language is not just about conveying information but also about performing actions through speech.

16.  According to Austin (1969), highlight the cooperative principles of conversation.

         Austin (1969) is best known for his work on speech act theory, not the cooperative principles of conversation. The cooperative principles you're referring to were actually proposed by H.P. Grice in 1975, not Austin.

However, since you're asking about Austin (1969), here's a quick clarification:

J.L. Austin (1969)

In his posthumously published work "How to Do Things with Words", Austin developed speech act theory, where he categorized utterances into:

  • Locutionary acts – the actual utterance and its literal meaning.
  • Illocutionary acts – the intended meaning or function (e.g., promising, ordering, warning).
  • Perlocutionary acts – the effect the utterance has on the listener.

H.P. Grice (1975) – Cooperative Principle

Grice proposed that for effective communication, speakers generally follow the Cooperative Principle, which is governed by four maxims:

  1. Maxim of Quantity: Provide as much information as needed, no more, no less.
  2. Maxim of Quality: Do not say what you believe to be false or lack evidence for.
  3. Maxim of Relation: Be relevant.
  4. Maxim of Manner: Be clear, orderly, and avoid ambiguity.

Summary:

  • Austin (1969): Focused on speech acts and how utterances perform actions.
  • Grice (1975): Introduced the Cooperative Principle and conversational maxims.

17.  Identify cohesive features is discourse.

   Cohesive features in discourse are linguistic elements that help link parts of a text together, making it flow logically and coherently. These features ensure that sentences and ideas are connected, creating textual cohesion. Here are the main types of cohesive features:

1. Reference

  • Anaphoric reference: Refers back to something previously mentioned.
    Example: "John lost his keys." ("his" refers back to John)
  • Cataphoric reference: Refers forward to something that appears later.
    Example: "He was angry — Tom had been ignored."
  • Exophoric reference: Refers to something outside the text (e.g., shared context).
    Example: "Look at that!" (requires situational context)

2. Substitution

Replacing a word or phrase with another to avoid repetition.
Example: "I like the red car. Do you like it too?"

3. Ellipsis

Leaving out words that are understood from context.
Example: "She can play the guitar, and he can too." ("can play the guitar" is omitted)

4. Conjunction

Using linking words to show logical relationships:

  • Additive: and, also, furthermore
  • Adversative: but, however, yet
  • Causal: so, therefore, because
  • Temporal: then, next, finally

Example: "He was tired, so he went to bed early."

5. Lexical Cohesion

Cohesion through vocabulary choice:

  • Repetition: Reusing the same word.
    Example: "The cat sat on the mat. The cat looked sleepy."
  • Synonyms/near-synonyms: Using related words.
    Example: "The task was difficult. The challenge required focus."
  • Collocation: Words that often go together.
    Example: "Make a decision, take a break."

18.  Describe five differences between spoken and written discourse.

   Spoken and written discourse exhibit numerous differences that reflect the distinct ways in which language is used in conversation versus text. One major difference is spontaneity. Spoken discourse is often unplanned and produced in real time, which leads to hesitations, repetitions, and filler words like "uh" or "you know." In contrast, written discourse is typically more deliberate, allowing for planning, drafting, and editing before the final version is presented.

Another important distinction lies in structure and organization. Spoken language tends to be loosely structured and less grammatically strict, while written discourse is usually well-organized, with clear beginnings, middles, and ends. Writers use paragraphing, punctuation, and other textual features to create logical flow and clarity, something that’s not always possible in spontaneous speech.

The use of grammar also differs considerably. Spoken language often uses incomplete or run-on sentences, as the primary goal is to convey meaning quickly and interactively. Written language, however, relies on more standard and formal grammatical structures, especially in academic or professional settings.

Vocabulary choice reflects another key difference. In speech, people tend to use everyday, informal words, including slang, idioms, and contractions. In writing, particularly in formal contexts, language tends to be more precise, formal, and technical, avoiding colloquialisms and informal expressions.

The nature of audience interaction is fundamentally different as well. Spoken discourse allows immediate feedback—listeners can ask questions, interrupt, or show understanding through facial expressions or gestures. In written discourse, there is no real-time interaction, so the writer must anticipate the reader’s questions and reactions and structure the text accordingly.

Non-verbal communication plays a significant role in spoken discourse. Tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures, and pauses all help convey meaning beyond words. Written discourse lacks these visual and auditory cues, so it must rely on punctuation, formatting, and word choice to express nuance and emotion.

Permanence and record also distinguish the two modes. Spoken language is typically ephemeral and temporary unless recorded, while written language creates a permanent record that can be revisited and referenced over time. This influences the carefulness and precision often expected in writing.

Finally, context dependence is more prominent in spoken discourse. Because it usually takes place in shared physical or social contexts, speakers often rely on those surroundings for meaning, using deixis or vague references. In writing, where the context may not be shared, the language must be more explicit and self-contained to ensure understanding.

These differences illustrate how spoken and written discourse serve different communicative purposes and require different strategies for effective expression and interpretation.

19.  Describe similarity between written and spoken discourse

   Spoken and written discourse, despite their differences, share several important similarities that reflect their common function as forms of human communication. One key similarity is that both aim to convey meaning. Whether through speech or text, the primary goal is to share ideas, express emotions, give instructions, or exchange information in a way that others can understand.

Another shared feature is the use of language structure and grammar. Both spoken and written discourse rely on the fundamental rules of a language, including sentence construction, subject-verb agreement, and tense usage. Although speech may be more flexible, both forms operate within recognizable grammatical systems that enable mutual comprehension.

Cohesion and coherence are essential in both modes. Speakers and writers use cohesive devices such as pronouns, conjunctions, and transitions to connect ideas smoothly. Whether it’s a conversation or an essay, the message must be logically organized so that listeners or readers can follow the line of thought.

In both spoken and written forms, audience awareness plays a significant role. The speaker or writer considers who they are addressing and adjusts their language, tone, and level of formality accordingly. A conversation with a friend differs from a speech at a formal event, just as a text message differs from a business report.

Another similarity is the use of discourse markers. Phrases like “however,” “you know,” “in addition,” and “so” help structure communication and guide the listener or reader through the content. These markers are found in both speech and writing, though their formality may vary.

Purpose-driven communication is also shared by both forms. Whether one is speaking or writing, the discourse is shaped by its goal—such as narrating a story, persuading an audience, giving directions, or asking questions. This influences the choice of words, structure, and tone in both modes.

Both forms of discourse also demonstrate cultural and social norms. The way people speak or write reflects their background, context, and the expectations of their community. Politeness, style, and turn-taking conventions in speech mirror writing conventions like formatting, salutations, and paragraphing.

Finally, language change and creativity occur in both spoken and written discourse. New expressions, slang, metaphors, and even emojis or voice inflections emerge in both forms as language evolves. Writers and speakers alike play with language to engage their audience, express personality, and reflect current trends.

These similarities show that while spoken and written discourse differ in delivery, they are united by their shared role in human interaction, governed by common principles of language and communication.

20.  Distinguish between the following:

i.                    Transactional language and interaction language

ii.                  Minimal responses and Hedges

iii.                Positive and Negative face

iv.                Performatives and constratives

v.                  Speech and art 

vi.                Sentence and utterance

vii.              Rheme and Theme

  i. Transactional Language and Interactional Language

Transactional language is used to exchange information, goods, or services. It focuses on content and outcomes—the message matters more than the relationship between speakers.
Example: “What time does the train leave?”

Interactional language is used to build or maintain social relationships. The focus is on the interpersonal connection, not necessarily the information.
Example: “How was your weekend?”

ii. Minimal Responses and Hedges

Minimal responses are short verbal or non-verbal cues used by listeners to show attention or agreement without taking over the conversation.
Examples: “Mm-hmm,” “Yeah,” “Right.”

Hedges are words or phrases used to soften statements, show politeness, or express uncertainty. They often make language less direct.
Examples: “Kind of,” “Maybe,” “I think.”

iii. Positive and Negative Face

Positive face is the desire to be liked, appreciated, and approved of by others.
Example: Complimenting someone supports their positive face.

Negative face is the desire to be independent and free from imposition.
Example: Saying “I’m sorry to bother you” respects someone’s negative face.

iv. Performatives and Constatives

Performatives are utterances that perform an action just by being said, often in the present tense with a clear speaker authority.
Example: “I now pronounce you husband and wife.”

Constatives are statements that describe or report facts and can be evaluated as true or false.
Example: “The sun rises in the east.”

v. Speech and Art

Speech is the use of spoken language to communicate, often spontaneous and used in daily interaction.
Example: Giving directions, telling a story aloud.

Art, in this context, refers to creative expression, such as painting, music, or poetry. While speech can be artistic, art typically transcends utilitarian communication and appeals to aesthetic or emotional experience.

vi. Sentence and Utterance

A sentence is a grammatical unit that follows language rules, typically written and complete in structure.
Example: “The cat is sleeping on the mat.”

An utterance is a spoken unit of language, bounded by silence or pauses, and may not always be grammatically complete.
Example: “Yeah, on the mat.” (spoken)

vii. Rheme and Theme

Theme is the starting point or topic of a clause—the part the sentence is about.
Example: “The dog chased the cat.” (Theme: The dog)

Rheme is the rest of the clause that provides new information about the theme.
Example: “The dog chased the cat.” (Rheme: chased the cat)

21.  Highlight the conversation Maxims as pronounced by Paul Grice (1975)

   Paul Grice (1975) proposed the Conversational Maxims as part of his Cooperative Principle, which explains how people understand each other in everyday conversation. Grice argued that speakers generally cooperate to make communication effective and meaningful. He identified four maxims that guide this cooperative behavior:

Maxim of Quantity
Provide the right amount of information—not too much, and not too little.
Example: If someone asks, "Where are you from?" and you say, "Nigeria," that's sufficient. Giving a full life story would violate this maxim.

Maxim of Quality
Be truthful. Do not say what you believe to be false or for which you lack evidence.
Example: Saying "I saw him at the office" when you actually didn’t would break this maxim.

Maxim of Relation (or Relevance)
Be relevant. Your contribution should relate clearly to the current topic of conversation.
Example: If someone asks, "Do you like tea?" responding with "I went to the market yesterday" would violate this maxim.

Maxim of Manner
Be clear and orderly. Avoid ambiguity, obscurity, or unnecessary complexity.
Example: Instead of saying, "The individual who is operating the vehicle," say, "The driver."

22.  Explain the four traditional different types of discourse.

   There are four traditional types of discourse in language and writing, each serving a distinct communicative purpose. These types help organize thoughts and guide how information is presented, whether in speech or writing.

The narrative type of discourse is used to tell a story. It involves a sequence of events, usually structured with a beginning, middle, and end. Narratives often include characters, a setting, conflict, and resolution. This type is commonly found in fiction, biographies, personal anecdotes, and even news reports. Its primary goal is to entertain, inform, or convey experiences in a coherent, engaging manner.

Descriptive discourse focuses on creating vivid images by detailing how something looks, sounds, feels, smells, or tastes. It appeals to the senses and is used to help the reader or listener visualize a person, place, object, or event. Descriptive writing is often found in literature, travel writing, and poetry, and it enhances the emotional and sensory experience of the audience.

The expository type of discourse is used to explain, inform, or define. It is logical and fact-based, aiming to present information clearly and objectively. Common examples include academic essays, news articles, instruction manuals, and textbooks. This type of discourse relies on definitions, comparisons, examples, and evidence to support the explanation.

Finally, argumentative discourse is intended to persuade the reader or listener to accept a particular point of view or take a specific action. It uses logic, reasoning, and evidence to build a case, often addressing opposing views to strengthen the argument. This type of discourse is commonly found in debates, opinion pieces, reviews, and persuasive essays.

Each of these discourse types plays a vital role in communication, and effective writing or speaking often combines more than one type to suit the purpose and audience.

23.  Describe the different language strategies as used by men and women in discourse.

   Language strategies used by men and women in discourse often differ due to socialization, cultural expectations, and communication goals, though it’s important to note these are general trends rather than strict rules. These differences reflect how men and women tend to express themselves, manage conversations, and establish relationships.

Women’s language strategies frequently emphasize rapport-building and connection. They tend to use more cooperative and supportive speech patterns, such as giving feedback, asking questions, and using polite forms. For example, women often employ hedges like “kind of” or “maybe” to soften statements, making their speech appear less confrontational and more inclusive. They also use more tag questions—phrases like “isn’t it?” or “don’t you think?”—to invite agreement and encourage dialogue.

Men’s language strategies, on the other hand, often focus on status and independence. Men may use more direct, assertive language and avoid hedging to appear confident and authoritative. Their speech tends to involve more commands, interruptions, and competitive turns, reflecting a style aimed at establishing dominance or control in conversations. Men are also more likely to engage in storytelling or joking as a way to demonstrate knowledge or expertise.

Another difference lies in topic selection and conversational goals. Women are generally more likely to discuss personal and relational topics, fostering empathy and emotional sharing. Men, by contrast, often prefer discussing facts, information, or activities, prioritizing problem-solving and task-oriented communication.

In terms of turn-taking and interruptions, women tend to take turns more smoothly, using subtle cues to indicate when someone else can speak. Men are more prone to interrupting or overlapping speech, which can be perceived as a way to assert control over the conversation flow.

Despite these general tendencies, there is significant overlap, and context plays a big role. Many men use language strategies associated with women and vice versa, especially in different social or professional settings. Ultimately, these language strategies reflect broader social patterns and individual personalities rather than rigid gender divisions.

24.  Plain the differences between negative face threatening acts and positive face threatening acts.

   Negative face threatening acts and positive face threatening acts are concepts from politeness theory, which explains how people manage social interactions to maintain each other's self-esteem and social harmony.

Negative face threatening acts (NFTA) involve behaviors that infringe on a person’s desire for autonomy and freedom from imposition. When someone performs an NFTA, they are seen as restricting the other person’s ability to act freely or making demands that limit their independence. Examples include giving orders, making requests, or interrupting someone. For instance, saying "Give me your notes" directly threatens the listener’s negative face because it imposes on their freedom to choose.

In contrast, positive face threatening acts (PFTA) threaten a person’s desire to be liked, appreciated, and approved of by others. These acts challenge a person’s need for social acceptance and respect. Examples of PFTAs include criticism, disagreement, or insults. For example, telling someone "Your presentation was boring" threatens their positive face because it attacks their need for approval and recognition.

In summary, negative face threats concern freedom from imposition, while positive face threats relate to the desire for social approval and appreciation. Effective communication often involves strategies to minimize both types of threats to maintain politeness and social harmony.

Here are five clear differences between negative face threatening acts and positive face threatening acts:

  1. Nature of the Threat
    Negative face threatening acts (NFTAs) threaten a person’s freedom and autonomy, making them feel imposed upon. Positive face threatening acts (PFTAs) threaten a person’s need to be liked and accepted by others.
  2. Examples of Acts
    NFTAs include requests, orders, or interruptions that restrict someone’s freedom (e.g., “Give me your book”). PFTAs include criticisms, insults, or disagreements that damage someone’s social approval (e.g., “Your idea is bad”).
  3. Focus of Impact
    NFTAs focus on personal space and independence, while PFTAs focus on social identity and approval.
  4. Emotional Effect
    NFTAs often cause feelings of resentment or resistance due to perceived imposition. PFTAs can cause feelings of embarrassment, shame, or hurt due to damaged self-esteem.
  5. Communication Strategies to Mitigate
    To reduce NFTAs, people use politeness strategies like hedging or indirect requests to lessen imposition. To reduce PFTAs, they use compliments or softening language to protect the other person’s positive image.

25.  Describe Brown and Lavensonta (1987) four main politeness strategies.

  Brown and Levinson (1987) developed a widely influential theory of politeness, identifying four main politeness strategies people use to manage face-threatening acts and maintain social harmony in communication. These strategies help speakers show respect and consideration for others’ social “face,” or public self-image.

The first strategy is Bald On-Record, where the speaker communicates directly and clearly without any minimization of the face threat. This approach is straightforward and efficient but can be perceived as blunt or rude if not used appropriately. It is often used when urgency or clarity is more important than politeness, or between close friends who don’t need to soften requests or criticisms.

The second strategy is Positive Politeness, which aims to appeal to the listener’s desire to be liked, appreciated, and valued. Speakers using this strategy often compliment, show interest, or express solidarity to reduce the impact of a face-threatening act. For example, saying “You’re really good at this, could you help me with it?” shows respect and camaraderie.

The third strategy is Negative Politeness, which recognizes the listener’s need for autonomy and freedom from imposition. It involves using indirect language, hedges, apologies, or formal expressions to show deference and avoid forcing the listener. An example might be, “I’m sorry to bother you, but could you possibly lend me your notes?”

The fourth and final strategy is Off-Record (Indirect), where the speaker hints at or implies a request or statement without explicitly stating it, allowing for plausible deniability. This indirectness protects both the speaker and listener’s face by avoiding direct imposition. For example, instead of saying “Close the window,” a speaker might say, “It’s quite chilly in here, isn’t it?”

Together, these four strategies offer a framework for understanding how people navigate politeness and face management in everyday communication, balancing directness with social sensitivity.

26.  What maxim has been flouted in each of the following exchanges and why.

i.                    Have you been been cooking all by yourself

ii.                  Yes, I hope you would come and help,now,I am about to die

 

i.                    Where care you ?

ii.                  America via Amsterdam .I will stay in Floridian, new York,Califonia doing presentations so as to get new clients

 

i.                    Have you seen my brother

ii.                  Yes

  i. Have you been cooking all by yourself?
ii. Yes, I hope you would come and help, now I am about to die.

  • Maxim flouted: Maxim of Relation (Relevance)
  • Why: The response does not directly answer the question about cooking alone. Instead, it shifts to asking for help and exaggerates the situation, which is irrelevant to the yes/no question asked.

i. Where are you?
ii. America via Amsterdam. I will stay in Floridian, New York, California doing presentations so as to get new clients.

  • Maxim flouted: Maxim of Quantity
  • Why: The answer provides more information than requested. The question asked for location, but the reply includes detailed travel and work plans, which is more than necessary.

i. Have you seen my brother?
ii. Yes.

  • Maxim flouted: Maxim of Quantity
  • Why: The response is too brief and does not provide enough information. Saying just “Yes” is minimal and does not specify when or where the brother was seen, which would be more informative. 

27.  Demonstrate the following concepts using appropriate examples:

i.                    Theme and rheme

ii.                  Rank scale

iii.                Adjacency pairs

    i. Theme and Rheme

In a sentence, the theme is the part that introduces the topic or what the sentence is about, usually coming at the beginning. The rheme is the part that gives new information about the theme.

Example:
The cat (Theme) is sleeping on the sofa (Rheme).

Here, “The cat” is the starting point or topic, and “is sleeping on the sofa” provides information about the cat.

ii. Rank Scale

The rank scale is a hierarchy used in linguistics to analyze language structure from smallest to largest units. The common scale is: phoneme < morpheme < word < phrase < clause < sentence < discourse.

Example:

  • Phoneme: /b/ sound
  • Morpheme: "book" (a single meaningful unit)
  • Word: "books" (plural form adds a morpheme)
  • Phrase: "the big book"
  • Clause: "The big book is on the table"
  • Sentence: "The big book is on the table."
  • Discourse: A whole conversation or essay involving multiple sentences.

iii. Adjacency Pairs

Adjacency pairs are paired utterances in conversation where one utterance prompts a predictable response.

Examples:

  • Question and Answer
    A: "How are you?"
    B: "I’m fine, thanks."
  • Greeting and Greeting
    A: "Hello!"
    B: "Hi there!"
  • Invitation and Acceptance/Refusal
    A: "Would you like to come to the party?"
    B: "Yes, I’d love to."

Adjacency pairs show how conversations are organized to be coherent and meaningful.

28.  Give three examples of adjacency pairs .

    ·  Question and Answer
A: "Where are you going?"
B: "I’m heading to the library."

·  Greeting and Greeting
A: "Hello!"
B: "Hi!"

·  Invitation and Acceptance/Refusal
A: "Do you want to come to the party?"
B: "Yes, that sounds great!" / "No, thanks."

·  Offer and Acceptance/Refusal
A: "Would you like some coffee?"
B: "Yes, please." / "No, thank you."

·  Complaint and Apology
A: "You were late for the meeting."
B: "I’m sorry about that."

29.  Illustrate the structural types of sentences according to the rules of grammar and state their discourse function.

  Sentences can be structurally classified according to grammar into four main types: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. Each type also tends to have different discourse functions depending on how it is used.

Simple sentences consist of a single independent clause with a subject and a predicate. They express a complete thought.
Example: "She reads books."
Discourse function: Simple sentences often provide clear, straightforward information or statements. They are commonly used for declarations or basic commands.

Compound sentences contain two or more independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions such as and, but, or or.
Example: "She reads books, and he watches movies."
Discourse function: Compound sentences can show relationships like addition, contrast, or choice between ideas, making discourse more connected and elaborated.

Complex sentences have one independent clause and at least one dependent (subordinate) clause connected by subordinating conjunctions like because, although, or when.
Example: "She reads books because she enjoys learning."
Discourse function: Complex sentences are used to explain reasons, conditions, or time relationships, adding depth and nuance to discourse.

Compound-complex sentences combine features of compound and complex sentences, containing at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
Example: "She reads books because she enjoys learning, and he watches movies to relax."
Discourse function: These sentences allow for expressing multiple related ideas with detailed relationships, enriching the discourse with complexity and precision.

By understanding these structural types and their functions, speakers and writers can vary their language to suit different communicative purposes, from simple statements to detailed explanations.

30.  What are the two main functions of discourse.

   The interactional function focuses on building, maintaining, or managing social relationships between participants. It is less about exchanging information and more about expressing feelings, showing solidarity, and maintaining social bonds. For example, casual greetings, small talk, or polite expressions serve this function.

The transactional function, on the other hand, is centered on the exchange of information or accomplishing specific tasks. It aims to convey messages clearly and efficiently, such as giving instructions, asking for information, or making requests. This function is common in work-related or goal-oriented conversations.

Together, these two functions shape how discourse operates in everyday communication, balancing social connection with the need to share information

31.  Briefly explain how four Grice Maxims aid the process of communication.

 The four Gricean maxims—Quantity, Quality, Relation, and Manner—help make communication clear, efficient, and meaningful.

The Maxim of Quantity ensures that speakers provide just the right amount of information—neither too little nor too much—so listeners get what they need without confusion or overload.

The Maxim of Quality encourages speakers to be truthful and provide information backed by evidence, which builds trust and helps listeners rely on what’s being said.

The Maxim of Relation asks speakers to be relevant, keeping contributions focused on the topic so conversations stay coherent and understandable.

The Maxim of Manner promotes clarity by urging speakers to avoid ambiguity and be orderly, making it easier for listeners to grasp the intended meaning quickly.

Together, these maxims guide speakers in cooperating effectively, ensuring smooth and successful communication.

32.  Clearly show how the following devices contribute to cohesion in discourse

i.                    Cohesion by reference

ii.                  Cohesion by substitution

iii.                Cohesion by ellipsis

iv.                Cohesion by demonstrative pronouns.

   i. Cohesion by Reference
This device uses pronouns or other words to refer back to something already mentioned or to something understood in the context, helping link sentences together without repeating information.
Example:
"Sarah loves reading. She goes to the library every week."
Here, "She" refers back to "Sarah," creating a connection that keeps the discourse cohesive.

ii. Cohesion by Substitution
Substitution replaces a word or phrase with another word to avoid repetition, maintaining flow and coherence.
Example:
"I want the blue pen. Do you have one?"
"One" substitutes for "pen," preventing unnecessary repetition and linking ideas smoothly.

iii. Cohesion by Ellipsis
Ellipsis occurs when words are left out because they are understood from the context, making the discourse more concise while keeping it connected.
Example:
"Are you coming to the party?"
"I might." (The words "come to the party" are omitted but understood.)
This omission helps maintain cohesion by relying on shared context.

iv. Cohesion by Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns like this, that, these, and those point to something mentioned earlier or about to be mentioned, linking parts of the discourse clearly.
Example:
"I found a wallet on the street. This is mine."
"This" refers to the wallet mentioned, helping the listener connect the sentences cohesively.

Each of these devices creates links between parts of a text or conversation, making the message easier to follow and understand

33.  Explain the following terms as used by Searle in discourse analysis

i.                    Representatives

ii.                  Directives

iii.                Commissive

iv.                Expressives

  Here are explanations of the terms as used by John Searle in discourse analysis, specifically in his speech act theory:

i. Representatives
Representatives are speech acts that commit the speaker to the truth of a proposition. The speaker is asserting, stating, or describing something they believe to be true. Examples include asserting, claiming, concluding, or reporting. For instance, saying “The sky is blue” is a representative act because the speaker represents a fact or belief.

ii. Directives
Directives are speech acts that aim to get the listener to do something. They express commands, requests, suggestions, or advice. The speaker tries to influence the behavior of the listener. Examples include “Please close the door,” “Can you help me?” or “You should see a doctor.”

iii. Commissives
Commissives are speech acts where the speaker commits themselves to a future course of action. They express promises, offers, vows, or threats. For example, “I will call you tomorrow” or “I promise to finish the report” are commissive acts because the speaker binds themselves to doing something.

iv. Expressives
Expressives are speech acts that express the speaker’s psychological state or attitude toward a situation. They communicate feelings such as thanks, apologies, congratulations, or condolences. For instance, saying “Thank you for your help” or “I’m sorry for being late” are expressive acts.

These categories help us understand how utterances function in communication beyond just conveying information—they perform actions.

34.  Describe the major tenets of conversational analysis and state how one can violate the principles of a good conversation.

 Here’s an overview of the major tenets of Conversation Analysis (CA) and how one might violate the principles of a good conversation:

Major Tenets of Conversation Analysis

Conversation Analysis is a method for studying the structure and patterns of talk in interaction. Its major principles include:

  • Turn-taking: Conversation is organized so that participants take turns speaking, usually without overlapping or long pauses. Each speaker knows when to speak and when to listen.
  • Adjacency pairs: Conversations are structured in paired exchanges, like question–answer, greeting–greeting, or offer–acceptance, which create predictable patterns of interaction.
  • Repair mechanisms: When misunderstandings or errors occur, participants have ways to fix them, such as asking for clarification or repeating information.
  • Preference organization: Certain types of responses are preferred (e.g., acceptance over refusal), and speakers often structure their talk to produce preferred responses to maintain social harmony.
  • Sequence organization: The order of utterances matters, with each turn relating to the previous one to build coherent discourse.

How One Can Violate the Principles of a Good Conversation

Violations occur when these organizational features are ignored or disrupted, such as:

  • Interrupting or talking over others, breaking smooth turn-taking and causing confusion or discomfort.
  • Ignoring adjacency pairs by failing to respond appropriately (e.g., not answering a question or not returning a greeting), which disrupts the flow and expectations.
  • Not repairing misunderstandings, leaving confusion unresolved and blocking effective communication.
  • Giving dispreferred responses abruptly, such as blunt refusals or ignoring social norms, which can cause awkwardness or offense.
  • Introducing irrelevant topics, which breaks the sequence organization and confuses the conversational focus.

Maintaining these tenets helps conversations run smoothly, be meaningful, and preserve social relationships. Violations can lead to misunderstandings, tension, or breakdowns in communication.

35.  Name and describe the main tenets of conversation analysis as an approach to discourse analysis.

   The main tenets of Conversation Analysis (CA) as an approach to discourse analysis are:

  1. Turn-Taking
    Conversation is organized so that speakers take turns talking, typically one at a time. Turn-taking is managed smoothly to avoid long gaps or interruptions, ensuring that each participant knows when to speak and when to listen.
  2. Adjacency Pairs
    Talk is structured in paired exchanges, where one speaker’s utterance naturally expects a specific type of response. Examples include question–answer, greeting–greeting, or offer–acceptance pairs, which create predictable interaction patterns.
  3. Repair
    When communication problems arise, such as misunderstandings, mishearings, or errors, participants actively work to fix them. This repair mechanism helps maintain mutual understanding and keeps the conversation on track.
  4. Preference Organization
    Certain responses are socially preferred over others—for example, accepting an invitation is preferred over refusing it. Speakers often design their talk to produce or anticipate these preferred responses, which helps maintain social harmony.
  5. Sequence Organization
    Utterances are linked in sequences where the meaning of one turn depends on the previous turns. This sequential organization ensures coherence and meaning throughout the conversation.

These tenets form the foundation of Conversation Analysis, focusing on how everyday talk is structured to achieve mutual understanding and social interaction.

36.  Explain how the formalist and functionalist differ in their explanation or what discourse is.

  The formalist and functionalist approaches offer different perspectives on what discourse is and how it should be studied. The formalist view focuses primarily on the structure and form of language in discourse. Formalists analyze discourse by examining grammatical rules, syntax, sentence construction, and linguistic units like phrases and clauses. They treat discourse as a system of well-defined formal patterns and emphasize the internal organization of language itself, often abstracted from context or social purpose. For formalists, discourse is largely about how language is put together structurally.

In contrast, the functionalist approach emphasizes the purpose and use of language in communication. Functionalists see discourse as language in action, focusing on how language serves different social functions and conveys meaning in context. They analyze how speakers use language to achieve goals, perform actions, manage relationships, and respond to situations. For functionalists, discourse is dynamic and shaped by its communicative and social purposes, not just its formal properties.

In summary, while formalists concentrate on the form and internal linguistic structure of discourse, functionalists focus on the function and communicative purpose of language in real-life contexts.

37.  With an original example for each, state and explain the two major functions of language.

  he two major functions of language are the referential function and the expressive function.

The referential function is used to convey information or describe the world around us. It’s focused on transmitting factual content or ideas. For example, if someone says, “The sun sets in the west,” they are using language to provide information about a natural fact. This function helps us share knowledge, report events, or explain things clearly.

The expressive function is used to express the speaker’s feelings, attitudes, or emotions. It reflects the speaker’s inner state rather than just sharing information. For example, when someone says, “I’m so happy today!” they are expressing their personal emotion. This function allows speakers to communicate their mood, feelings, or reactions to others.

Together, these functions show how language can both inform and connect us emotionally.

38.  Explain four ways of achieving cohesion in a text.

1.         Reference
This involves using pronouns or other words to refer back to something already mentioned or to something understood in context. For example, using words like he, she, it, or this links sentences and avoids repetition, helping the text flow smoothly.

  1. Substitution
    Substitution replaces a word or phrase with another, usually shorter, word to avoid repetition. For example, instead of repeating “the book,” you might say “one” or “it.” This keeps the text connected without sounding redundant.
  2. Ellipsis
    Ellipsis occurs when part of a sentence is left out because it’s understood from the context. For example:
    “Do you want tea?”
    “Yes, I do.” (Here, want tea is omitted but understood.) Ellipsis helps make the text more concise while maintaining coherence.
  3. Conjunction
    Conjunctions are linking words such as and, but, because, and however that connect sentences or clauses, showing relationships like addition, contrast, cause, or sequence. They help organize ideas logically, making the text easier to follow.

Together, these devices create connections between sentences and ideas, making a text coherent and easy to understand.

39.  Discuss five types of cohesion relationships who illustration for each

 There are five types of cohesion relationships in discourse that help connect ideas and maintain flow. One important type is reference, which creates cohesion by using words that point back to something already mentioned or understood in the context. For example, in the sentences, "John arrived late. He missed the beginning of the meeting," the pronoun "He" refers back to "John," linking the two sentences smoothly.

Another way cohesion is achieved is through substitution, where a word or phrase is replaced by another to avoid repetition and keep the text cohesive. For instance, when someone says, "I want a pen. Do you have one?" the word "one" substitutes for "pen," preventing unnecessary repetition while maintaining clarity.

Ellipsis also contributes to cohesion by omitting part of a sentence that can be inferred from the context, making the text more concise. For example, in the exchange, "Are you coming to the party?" followed by "Yes, I am," the verb "am" is omitted but understood, keeping the conversation fluent and connected.

Conjunctions serve as another cohesion device by linking sentences or clauses and showing relationships such as addition, contrast, cause, or sequence. For example, the sentence "I wanted to go for a walk, but it started raining," uses the conjunction "but" to connect two contrasting ideas, ensuring logical flow.

Finally, lexical cohesion is achieved through the use of related words or repetition, including synonymy, collocation, and hyponymy, to link parts of a text. An example is, "The doctor examined the patient. The physician recommended rest." Here, "doctor" and "physician" are synonyms, creating a strong lexical link that ties the sentences together.

Together, these cohesion relationships make discourse clear, connected, and easy to follow.

40.  Describe with the use of examples from a discourse occurrence each of the following concepts found in the Birmingham School model of spoken discourse analysis.

        i.            Rank scale

      ii.            Frame and focus

    iii.            Exchange structure

 Here’s a description of each concept from the Birmingham School model of spoken discourse analysis, with examples from discourse occurrences:

Rank Scale
The rank scale refers to the hierarchical levels at which language units can be analyzed, ranging from smaller units to larger ones. The main ranks are phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, clause, and sentence, but in spoken discourse, analysis often extends to larger units like exchange, move, and act.
Example:
In the sentence, "Can you pass the salt?"

  • The word rank includes can, you, pass, the, salt.
  • The clause is the whole sentence.
  • At a higher rank, the exchange might be this question followed by a response, e.g., "Sure, here you go."
    This hierarchy helps analyze discourse from sounds to full conversational acts.

Frame and Focus
Frame refers to the overall context or setting in which a conversation takes place, while focus is the specific topic or part of the conversation that is being emphasized or discussed at any moment. The frame sets boundaries and expectations, and the focus shifts within this frame as the conversation unfolds.
Example:
In a job interview (frame), the conversation might shift focus to the candidate’s previous experience:
Interviewer: "Tell me about your last job." (Focus shifts to work experience)
The frame is the formal interview setting, but the focus changes as different topics are introduced.

Exchange Structure
Exchange structure refers to the pattern of interaction in spoken discourse, often consisting of paired utterances such as adjacency pairs (e.g., question-answer, greeting-greeting). Exchanges organize talk and allow participants to anticipate responses.
Example:
Person A: "How are you?"
Person B: "I’m fine, thanks."
This is a simple adjacency pair forming an exchange. More complex exchanges can involve multiple turns but still follow an underlying structure guiding turn-taking and responses.

These concepts help in breaking down and understanding the organization and function of spoken discourse in real conversations.

41.  Use the notion topic and turn taking show how the categories of the Birmingham schools’ model and those of conversation analysis complement each other.

   The Birmingham School’s model of spoken discourse analysis and Conversation Analysis (CA) both study how conversations are structured, and their concepts of topic and turn-taking illustrate how these approaches complement each other.

The Birmingham School’s model uses the notion of topic to analyze how conversations are organized around particular subjects or themes. A topic acts as the focus within the discourse, guiding what is being discussed at any given time. It helps to segment conversation into meaningful units and shows how speakers maintain or shift the subject matter. This approach highlights the macro-organization of discourse — how topics are introduced, developed, and closed.

On the other hand, Conversation Analysis focuses in detail on turn-taking, which is the micro-organization of conversation. Turn-taking explains how speakers manage the floor, decide when to speak or listen, and how they avoid interruptions or overlaps. CA studies the precise timing and mechanisms that allow smooth exchanges, such as pauses, intonation, and cues.

Together, these concepts complement each other because managing topic relies on effective turn-taking. Without orderly turn-taking, it would be difficult to maintain coherent topics. Conversely, the presence of a clear topic guides turn-taking by providing speakers with cues on when to hold or release the floor. For example, when a topic changes, speakers often signal this by taking turns differently—either by pausing to invite a new speaker or by explicitly introducing the new topic.

In summary, the Birmingham School’s topic concept provides the thematic structure of discourse, while Conversation Analysis’s turn-taking mechanism explains how participants organize their interaction moment by moment. Together, they offer a fuller picture of how spoken discourse is both structured and managed in real conversations

42.  Briefly explain what is meant by each the following concepts ideas in discourse analysis. Illustrate your answer

                    i.            Topic and information structure

                  ii.            Discourse is a communicative act

                iii.            Discourse is designed for communication

                iv.            Different segments of discourse may be connected by lexical cohesion transaction

                  v.            Written discourse as primary means of transactions.

 

  i. Topic and Information Structure
Topic refers to what the discourse is about—the subject or theme being discussed. Information structure relates to how information is organized within a sentence or discourse, often distinguishing between what is already known (given) and what is new to the listener.
Example:
In the sentence, “As for the meeting, it will start at 3 pm,” the phrase “the meeting” is the topic, and “it will start at 3 pm” is the new information being given about the topic.

ii. Discourse is a Communicative Act
Discourse is not just random language; it is an intentional act of communication where speakers aim to achieve certain goals like informing, persuading, or requesting. Every piece of discourse has a purpose.
Example:
When someone says, “Could you close the window?” it is not just a statement but a communicative act requesting action.

iii. Discourse is Designed for Communication
Discourse is structured in a way that facilitates effective communication between participants. It uses linguistic and social cues to ensure understanding. It is shaped by the needs of the interaction.
Example:
In conversations, people often use turn-taking rules and polite forms to keep communication clear and smooth.

iv. Different Segments of Discourse May Be Connected by Lexical Cohesion Transactions
Discourse segments are linked together by the use of related words or expressions, known as lexical cohesion, which creates continuity.
Example:
“The chef prepared the meal carefully. The cook made sure every dish was perfect.” Here, “chef” and “cook” are related words that connect the two sentences.

v. Written Discourse as Primary Means of Transactions
Written discourse is often the main method used for formal or important communication, especially in business, legal, or official contexts. It serves as a permanent record of transactions or agreements.
Example:
Contracts, emails, and reports are forms of written discourse used to document and conduct transactions.

These concepts highlight different aspects of how discourse functions in communication.

43.  Describe how the following helps in the creational interpretation sentences occurring in discourse. Give examples of each

                    i.            Participants

                  ii.            Setting

                iii.            Purpose

   Here’s how participants, setting, and purpose help in the creation and interpretation of sentences in discourse, with examples for each:

i. Participants
Participants are the people involved in the communication—speakers, listeners, writers, or readers. Knowing who the participants are helps interpret sentences because language choices often depend on their roles, relationships, and shared knowledge. For example, informal language might be used between close friends, while formal language is expected in a job interview.
Example:
In a conversation between a teacher and a student, the teacher might say, "Please submit your assignment by Friday," which is polite but authoritative, reflecting their roles. Understanding the participants helps interpret the tone and intent.

ii. Setting
Setting refers to the physical, social, or cultural context where the discourse takes place. It influences how sentences are constructed and understood because different settings call for different language styles and levels of formality.
Example:
At a hospital, a doctor might say, "We need to monitor your blood pressure closely." In contrast, the same sentence might be less likely in a casual café chat. The medical setting guides interpretation toward a professional, serious context.

iii. Purpose
Purpose is the reason why the communication is happening—what the speaker or writer intends to achieve. Purpose shapes how sentences are formulated, what information is included, and how the message is conveyed.
Example:
If the purpose is to request help, someone might say, "Could you please help me carry these boxes?" The sentence’s structure and politeness reflect the goal of making a polite request. Recognizing the purpose helps the listener understand the intended action.

Together, participants, setting, and purpose provide crucial context that shapes how sentences are created and interpreted in discourse.

44.  Why would it be difficult to participate effectively in a discourse without each of the following:

                       i.            The maxim of quantity

                     ii.            Maxim of manner

                   iii.            The maxim of quality

                   iv.            Maxim of relevance.

  It would be difficult to participate effectively in discourse without the maxim of quantity because this maxim ensures that speakers provide the right amount of information—enough to be clear but not so much that it overwhelms or distracts the listener. Without it, conversations can become confusing due to insufficient details or frustrating because of unnecessary, excessive information.

Without the maxim of manner, communication can become unclear or ambiguous. This maxim calls for speakers to be orderly, clear, and avoid vagueness. If ignored, messages might be confusing or hard to follow, making it difficult for participants to understand and respond appropriately.

The absence of the maxim of quality would undermine trust in communication. This maxim requires speakers to be truthful and provide information supported by evidence. Without it, listeners cannot rely on what is being said, leading to misunderstandings, suspicion, and breakdowns in effective interaction.

Finally, without the maxim of relevance, contributions to a conversation may be off-topic or unrelated to the current discussion. This would make it hard to maintain coherence and focus, frustrating participants and disrupting the flow of discourse.

Together, these maxims are crucial for clear, truthful, relevant, and appropriately detailed communication, all of which are necessary for effective participation in discourse

45.  The maxim of relevance               Describe how conversational analysis can be used to analyze discourse’

The maxim of relevance requires that contributions in a conversation should be relevant to the ongoing topic or context. When speakers adhere to this maxim, the discourse remains coherent and focused, allowing participants to understand each other and engage meaningfully. Violating this maxim by making unrelated or off-topic remarks can cause confusion or disrupt the flow of conversation.

How Conversational Analysis can be used to analyze discourse

Conversational Analysis (CA) is a method used to study the structure and patterns of talk in interaction. It focuses on the detailed, moment-by-moment organization of conversation, such as how speakers take turns, manage pauses, repair misunderstandings, and maintain topic coherence.

By using CA to analyze discourse, researchers can:

  • Examine turn-taking mechanisms to see how speakers know when to speak or listen, and how smooth exchanges are maintained.
  • Analyze adjacency pairs (paired utterances like question-answer or greeting-response) to understand the predictable patterns in conversation.
  • Investigate repair sequences, showing how speakers handle problems like mishearings or misunderstandings to keep communication effective.
  • Study topic management, including how topics are introduced, maintained, or changed.
  • Explore how participants follow or violate conversational norms, such as the maxim of relevance, and how these affect the interaction.

For example, CA can reveal how a speaker’s pause or intonation signals their turn to speak, or how a question is responded to appropriately, maintaining relevance and coherence in the discourse.

In summary, Conversational Analysis provides detailed insights into how spoken discourse is organized and managed, helping us understand the subtle ways people cooperate to communicate effectively.

46.  Explain the features of context.

 Features of Context

Context refers to the situational factors surrounding a communicative event that influence how language is used and interpreted. It provides the background needed to understand the meaning of discourse fully. Several key features of context help shape communication:

Physical Context: This is the actual location and environment where the communication takes place. For example, a conversation in a classroom versus a coffee shop will have different expectations and language styles.

Social Context: This involves the relationships and social roles of the participants, such as whether they are friends, strangers, colleagues, or authority figures. These roles influence language choices, politeness, and formality.

Cultural Context: The shared beliefs, values, customs, and norms of the participants’ culture affect how messages are framed and understood. Cultural context can shape idioms, gestures, and communication styles.

Linguistic Context: Also called co-text, this refers to the surrounding words, sentences, or discourse that help interpret a particular utterance. It ensures that meaning is clear within the flow of conversation or text.

Historical Context: This includes previous interactions or background knowledge shared by participants that influence how current messages are understood.

Situational Context: This is the specific circumstance or purpose behind the communication, such as negotiating a business deal or giving instructions.

In essence, context frames the communication, guiding how messages are constructed and interpreted, ensuring that language is appropriate and meaningful in each situation

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