SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

1.      Discuss the factors that affect the first language acquisition (20marks)

First language acquisition is a complex process influenced by several biological, social, and environmental factors. Understanding these factors provides insight into how children develop their native language skills.

One significant factor is biological predisposition, which highlights the innate ability of humans to acquire language. This is supported by Noam Chomsky’s theory of the Language Acquisition Device (LAD), which posits that children are born with an inherent capability to understand and produce language. This biological framework sets the foundation for language learning in early childhood.

Another crucial factor is exposure to language in the environment. The amount and quality of linguistic interaction a child receives from caregivers and peers greatly impact their ability to acquire language. Children exposed to a rich and diverse vocabulary tend to develop stronger language skills than those with limited exposure.

Social interaction also plays a vital role. Language development thrives in environments where children engage in meaningful conversations. Interactions with adults and peers help children practice and refine their linguistic abilities. Parents’ use of simplified speech, known as child-directed speech, further aids comprehension and learning.

The age of acquisition is another influential factor. Research indicates that younger children acquire languages more easily due to the plasticity of their brains. This critical period for language learning diminishes with age, making early exposure essential for mastering the first language.

Cognitive development significantly affects language acquisition as well. A child's ability to think, reason, and process information correlates with their ability to learn and use language. Cognitive milestones, such as understanding object permanence or developing memory skills, are directly linked to language growth.

Cultural context shapes the way children acquire their first language. Different cultures emphasize various linguistic features, such as politeness forms, intonation, or specific vocabulary, influencing how and what children learn. These cultural norms also dictate the types of interactions that are common in a child’s environment.

The emotional bond between a child and their caregivers is another factor. A nurturing and supportive relationship fosters confidence and motivation, enabling children to engage more actively in language learning. Conversely, a lack of emotional connection can hinder language acquisition.

Lastly, individual differences among children, such as personality, motivation, and learning style, also impact how they acquire their first language. Some children may be naturally more curious and communicative, which accelerates their language development, while others may progress at a slower pace due to shyness or less engagement.

By examining these factors, it becomes clear that first language acquisition is not a one-dimensional process. Instead, it is influenced by a dynamic interplay of innate abilities, environmental exposure, and individual characteristics.

2.      Distinguish between language acquisition and language learning.

  Language acquisition and language learning are two different processes by which people develop language skills.

Language acquisition refers to the natural, unconscious process of gaining language, typically occurring in early childhood. It happens when a person is exposed to a language in meaningful, everyday situations, such as a child picking up their first language by listening and interacting with family and community. This process is intuitive and does not usually involve formal instruction.

On the other hand, language learning is a conscious, deliberate process often involving formal teaching or study. It usually happens when someone studies a second language in a classroom or through self-study, focusing on grammar rules, vocabulary lists, and exercises. Learning requires active effort and awareness of the language rules.

In summary, acquisition is a natural, implicit process of gaining language fluency, while learning is a conscious, explicit process often guided by instruction.

3.      Using an examples in each case, Explain the following words as used in language learning.

i.                    Mistakes

ii.                  Errors

iii.                Second language

iv.                Foreign language

v.                  Interlingual errors 

vi.                Intralingual errors

vii.              Inter-languages 

viii.            First language

ix.                Competence

x.                  Performance

xi.                Fossilization

xii.              Aphasia

xiii.            Behaviourism

xiv.            Linguistic competence

xv.              Communication competence

   i. Mistakes are occasional slips or lapses in language use that learners can usually recognize and correct themselves. They happen due to tiredness, distraction, or carelessness. Example: Saying, “He go to school yesterday” instead of “He went to school yesterday,” but realizing the error when corrected.

ii. Errors are systematic and consistent deviations from the target language rules made by learners because they have not yet fully learned the correct form. Learners are usually unaware of these errors. Example: Consistently saying “She goed” instead of “She went.”

iii. Second Language is any language learned after the first language, especially in a setting where that language is widely used. Example: A Spanish speaker learning English in the United States.

iv. Foreign Language is learned in a context where it is not the dominant language of the community and is usually studied in a classroom setting. Example: A Japanese student learning French in Japan.

v. Interlingual Errors are errors caused by interference from the learner’s first language when learning a second language. Example: A Spanish speaker might say “She has 20 years” instead of “She is 20 years old,” because in Spanish age is expressed this way.

vi. Intralingual Errors are errors that arise from the complexity of the target language itself, such as overgeneralization of rules. Example: Saying “goed” instead of “went” by applying the regular past tense “-ed” rule to an irregular verb.

vii. Interlanguages is the evolving linguistic system a learner creates when learning a second language, combining elements from their native language and the target language. Example: A learner saying “He goed to the store” reflects an interlanguage state, mixing correct and incorrect rules.

viii. First Language (L1) is the language a person learns from birth and usually speaks most fluently. Example: English for someone born and raised in the USA.

ix. Competence is the underlying knowledge a speaker has of their language, including grammar and vocabulary, regardless of actual use. Example: Knowing that “He goes” is correct, even if not always producing it correctly in speech.

x. Performance is the actual use of language in real situations, which can be affected by factors like memory or stress. Example: A native speaker forgetting a word during a conversation.

xi. Fossilization occurs when incorrect language forms become fixed in a learner’s speech or writing and do not change despite further exposure or correction. Example: A learner always saying “He go” instead of “He goes,” even after years of study.

xii. Aphasia is a language disorder caused by brain damage, affecting speech production or comprehension. Example: A person with aphasia may struggle to find words or form sentences after a stroke.

xiii. Behaviourism is a theory that language learning is based on habit formation through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. Example: Children learning language by mimicking adults and being corrected.

xiv. Linguistic Competence is the knowledge of language rules—syntax, morphology, phonology—that enables understanding and production of grammatically correct sentences. Example: Knowing how to form questions correctly in English (“Do you like pizza?”).

xv. Communicative Competence is the ability to use language appropriately in social contexts, including knowing how to start, maintain, and end conversations, and understanding cultural norms. Example: Knowing how to politely refuse an invitation in a culturally appropriate way.

4.      Distinguish between Broaca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia.

  Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia are two types of language disorders caused by damage to different areas of the brain, each affecting language production and comprehension differently.

Broca’s aphasia results from damage to Broca’s area, located in the frontal lobe. It is characterized by non-fluent, effortful speech. Individuals with Broca’s aphasia understand spoken language relatively well but have difficulty producing speech. Their sentences are often short, fragmented, and lack grammatical structure (called agrammatism). For example, a person might say, "Want food," instead of a full sentence like, "I want some food."

In contrast, Wernicke’s aphasia is caused by damage to Wernicke’s area in the temporal lobe. It is marked by fluent but nonsensical speech. People with Wernicke’s aphasia speak in long, grammatically correct sentences that often lack meaning or include made-up words. Additionally, they have significant difficulty understanding spoken language. For example, they might say, "I went to the flibber today to get some glorp," which is fluent but largely meaningless.

In summary, Broca’s aphasia affects speech production and fluency but preserves comprehension, whereas Wernicke’s aphasia impairs language comprehension and produces fluent but meaningless speech.

5.      Discuss weaknesses of the contrastive analysis theory.

   The Contrastive Analysis Theory (CAT), which compares learners’ native language (L1) with the target language (L2) to predict and explain learning difficulties, has several notable weaknesses.

Firstly, CAT assumes that all errors in second language learning arise from interference from the first language. However, many errors actually result from the internal processes of language learning itself, such as overgeneralization or developmental mistakes, which are not explained by contrasts with L1.

Secondly, CAT focuses heavily on the structural differences between languages (phonology, grammar, vocabulary) but largely ignores the role of context, meaning, and communicative function in language use. This limits its ability to predict difficulties related to pragmatics or discourse features.

Thirdly, the theory tends to be deterministic and reductionist, implying that learners’ errors can be predicted solely based on language differences, which oversimplifies the complex cognitive and social factors involved in language acquisition.

Moreover, CAT was mainly useful for explaining errors but less effective in helping with teaching strategies or understanding the dynamic process of language learning. It provides little guidance on how learners overcome errors or develop proficiency.

Finally, the theory neglects individual learner differences, such as motivation, exposure, aptitude, and learning context, all of which play critical roles in language acquisition beyond what linguistic contrasts can predict.

In summary, while Contrastive Analysis Theory highlights important language differences that may cause difficulties, its weaknesses lie in its limited scope, oversimplification, and inability to fully explain the complexity of second language learning.

6.      What is the difference between general linguistic and applied linguistic

  General linguistics is the scientific study of language as a system. It focuses on understanding the nature, structure, and function of language itself. This includes analyzing phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics across all languages to uncover universal principles and patterns of human language.

In contrast, applied linguistics takes the knowledge and theories from general linguistics and applies them to practical real-world problems related to language. This can involve language teaching and learning, language assessment, translation, language policy, speech therapy, and language technology. Applied linguistics is interdisciplinary and focuses on using linguistic insights to solve specific language-related issues.

In summary, general linguistics is more theoretical and descriptive, studying language broadly, while applied linguistics is practical and problem-solving, using linguistic knowledge in real-life contexts.

7.      Describe the role of applied linguistics in language learning.

 Applied linguistics plays a crucial role in language learning by bridging the gap between linguistic theory and practical language use. It provides insights and tools that help improve the teaching and acquisition of languages. One key role of applied linguistics is in developing effective language teaching methodologies based on how people actually learn languages, incorporating findings from psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, and second language acquisition research.

Applied linguistics also contributes to curriculum design and language assessment, ensuring that learning materials and tests are appropriate, valid, and aligned with learners’ needs and goals. It helps in identifying and addressing learners’ difficulties, such as common errors or pronunciation challenges, by understanding the underlying linguistic principles and learning processes.

Moreover, applied linguistics promotes the use of technology and multimedia resources in language learning, making lessons more interactive and accessible. It also emphasizes the importance of cultural competence and communication strategies, helping learners use language effectively in real social contexts.

In essence, applied linguistics informs and enhances language learning by combining theory with practice, making language acquisition more efficient, meaningful, and adaptable to diverse learner populations.

8.      Discuss the behaviourist theory of second language learning according to skinner and highlight its weaknesses

 The Behaviourist theory of second language learning, as proposed by B.F. Skinner, views language learning primarily as a process of habit formation. According to Skinner, language acquisition occurs through stimulus-response conditioning where learners imitate sounds and structures they hear, receive positive reinforcement (rewards) for correct usage, and gradually form language habits. Repetition, practice, and reinforcement are key in this process, and errors are corrected to prevent the formation of bad habits.

In this view, learning a second language is similar to learning any other behavior — through conditioning and reinforcement without needing to understand underlying rules or meanings explicitly. The environment plays a central role, as exposure to language input and the reactions from others shape the learner’s language behavior.

However, the behaviourist theory has several weaknesses. It fails to explain how learners produce novel sentences they have never heard before, as imitation alone cannot account for creativity in language use. It also neglects the role of internal mental processes such as cognition, understanding, and rule formation, which are critical in language learning. Furthermore, the theory does not adequately address the influence of innate factors like the human brain’s language acquisition device (as argued by Noam Chomsky), which suggests that language learning is not just habit formation but involves internal mechanisms.

Additionally, behaviourism overlooks the social and communicative aspects of language learning, focusing only on mechanical repetition and reinforcement rather than meaningful interaction. As a result, it cannot fully explain how learners acquire fluency or pragmatic competence in a second language.

In summary, while Skinner’s behaviourist theory highlights the importance of practice and reinforcement, its limited focus on external behavior and neglect of mental and social factors make it insufficient for fully explaining second language acquisition.

9.      Explain skinner’s theory of verbal behaviour? What criticisms have been levelled against this theory?

 Skinner’s theory of verbal behaviour, proposed in his 1957 book Verbal Behavior, is rooted in behaviorism and treats language as a behavior that is learned through stimulus-response associations and reinforcement, much like any other learned behavior. According to B.F. Skinner, verbal behavior is not innate but acquired through conditioning — that is, individuals learn to speak by imitating others and being rewarded (or reinforced) for correct usage.

Skinner identified several types of verbal behavior:

• Mands – requests or commands (e.g., “Give me water”), reinforced by the satisfaction of needs.
• Tacts – labeling or commenting on the environment (e.g., “That’s a dog”), reinforced socially.
• Echoics – repetition or mimicry of speech, learned through imitation.
• Intraverbals – conversational responses to others' speech (e.g., Q: “How are you?” A: “I’m fine”).

In this model, language is shaped by the environment, and correct language forms are strengthened through positive reinforcement, while incorrect ones are weakened or ignored.

Criticisms of Skinner’s Theory

1. Lack of explanation for language creativity
   Critics, most notably Noam Chomsky, argued that Skinner's theory cannot explain how children generate sentences they’ve never heard before. This shows that language use is not just based on imitation or reinforcement but involves internal rule-based systems.
2. Ignores innate cognitive abilities
   Chomsky introduced the idea of an innate “language acquisition device” (LAD), suggesting that humans are biologically predisposed to acquire language. Skinner’s theory does not account for these mental structures or processes.
3. Underestimates understanding and meaning
   Skinner focuses only on observable behavior and external reinforcement, ignoring the semantic and cognitive aspects of language, such as understanding meaning, intentions, or abstract concepts.
4. Fails to account for the rapid pace of language acquisition in children
   Children acquire complex grammatical structures too quickly and with too little exposure for reinforcement alone to be the explanation.
5. Overemphasis on conditioning
   Language learning is not always based on trial-and-error or reinforcement. Much of it occurs through interaction, understanding, and deduction, which Skinner’s theory does not address.

Conclusion

Skinner’s theory of verbal behavior was influential in highlighting the role of environment and reinforcement in language use. However, it has been largely discredited for failing to account for language creativity, innate ability, internal mental processes, and the speed of acquisition, all of which are central to modern understandings of how language is learned.

10.  Discuss the inter-language theory clearly showing its weaknesses.

  he Interlanguage Theory is a significant concept in the field of second language acquisition, first introduced by Larry Selinker in 1972. It describes the evolving linguistic system that a language learner develops while acquiring a second language (L2). This system is unique because it is neither the learner’s native language (L1) nor the target language itself but rather an intermediate or transitional form that contains elements from both as well as innovations created by the learner.

Interlanguage is dynamic and systematic; it changes over time as learners gain more exposure to the L2 and develop their understanding. Although learners often make errors, these mistakes are not random but follow certain patterns and internal rules. The theory also emphasizes the influence of the native language, where learners transfer certain structures or vocabulary from their L1, sometimes resulting in errors. Another important aspect of the theory is fossilization, where some errors become fixed and persist despite continued learning.

Despite its valuable insights, the Interlanguage Theory has several weaknesses. One major criticism is its overemphasis on error analysis. By focusing primarily on learners’ mistakes, the theory tends to overlook their successful communication and the positive aspects of language use. This can create a deficit view of learners, portraying them as failing rather than progressing.

Another limitation is the theory’s tendency to ignore social and cultural factors. It concentrates heavily on internal cognitive processes and does not adequately account for how social interaction, motivation, identity, and cultural context influence language learning. These external factors play a crucial role in shaping a learner’s language development but are largely absent in the interlanguage framework.

Additionally, the theory does not sufficiently recognize individual differences among learners. People vary in terms of aptitude, learning strategies, personality, and emotional states like anxiety or confidence, all of which affect the pace and success of language acquisition. The interlanguage concept tends to generalize the learning process and assumes a somewhat linear progression toward proficiency, which may not accurately reflect the varied experiences of learners.

The concept of fossilization, while central to the theory, is also problematic. It is not clearly defined or well understood, and the reasons why some errors become permanent while others do not remain unclear. This vagueness limits the explanatory power of the theory.

Finally, language learning itself is often non-linear. Interlanguage theory suggests a gradual and sequential development toward the target language, but in reality, learners may experience fluctuations, plateaus, or sudden advances that the theory does not fully explain.

In conclusion, while the Interlanguage Theory provides a useful framework for understanding how learners construct a personal language system, it has notable shortcomings. Its narrow focus on errors, limited attention to social and individual differences, unclear treatment of fossilization, and assumptions about linear progression mean that it should be complemented by other theories that emphasize social interaction, affective factors, and learner variability for a more comprehensive understanding of second language acquisition.

11.  What are the characteristics of both pidgins and creoles?

  Pidgins and creoles are types of contact languages that develop under specific social and linguistic conditions. Both arise when speakers of different native languages need to communicate but do not share a common language. However, they differ significantly in their development, structure, and use. Below are the main characteristics of both pidgins and creoles:

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Characteristics of Pidgins

• Simplified Language: Pidgins have a simplified grammar and limited vocabulary. They usually reduce complex linguistic features such as tense, mood, and agreement.
• No Native Speakers: Pidgins are nobody’s first language; they are used as a second language or auxiliary means of communication.
• Restricted Function: Pidgins are often limited to specific social contexts such as trade, work, or basic interaction between groups.
• Reduced Phonology and Syntax: Sounds and sentence structures are simplified to make communication easier across language barriers.
• Mixed Vocabulary: The vocabulary is often derived primarily from one dominant language (called the lexifier) but can include elements from multiple languages.
• Non-standardized: Pidgins tend to lack formal rules and are highly variable; they can differ significantly depending on the region and speakers.
• Context-dependent: Their usage depends heavily on the immediate social situation and the need for communication.

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Characteristics of Creoles

• Fully Developed Language: Unlike pidgins, creoles are fully developed natural languages with complex grammar and vocabulary systems.
• Native Speakers: Creoles are spoken as a first language by a community, often the children of pidgin speakers who expand and stabilize the language.
• Broader Functionality: Creoles are used in all aspects of life — home, education, government, and culture.
• Stabilized Grammar: Creoles have consistent and rule-governed syntax, morphology, and phonology, often showing innovations beyond the pidgin stage.
• Expanded Vocabulary: The lexicon of creoles is larger and more diverse, though often still based largely on the lexifier language.
• Standardization: Creoles can become standardized and may develop written forms and literature.
• Cultural Identity: Creoles often carry strong cultural significance and identity for their speakers.

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In summary, pidgins are simplified contact languages created for limited communication without native speakers, while creoles evolve from pidgins into fully functional native languages with complex structures and wide social use.

12.  Differentiate between pidgin and creoles.

 

Aspect	Pidgin	Creole
Definition	A simplified language that develops as a means of communication between speakers of different native languages, usually for trade or basic interaction.	A fully developed natural language that evolves from a pidgin when it becomes the first language of a community.
Native speakers	Usually none; pidgins are second languages for all speakers.	Has native speakers who learn it from birth.
Complexity	Limited vocabulary and simplified grammar.	More complex vocabulary and grammar, fully developed like any natural language.
Function	Used for basic communication, often limited to specific domains (e.g., trade).	Used for everyday communication in all domains of life.
Stability	Less stable; can change quickly or disappear.	More stable and standardized over time.
Example	Tok Pisin (in its early stages), West African Pidgin English	Haitian Creole, Jamaican Creole, modern Tok Pisin

In short:
Pidgin = simplified, no native speakers, limited use.
Creole = developed from pidgin, native speakers, fully functional language.

13.  Discuss the five hypothesis of the monitor model.

    The Monitor Model is a theory of second language acquisition proposed by Stephen Krashen. It explains how people learn and use a second language, and it consists of five main hypotheses. Here's a breakdown of each:

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
Acquisition is a subconscious process, similar to how children learn their first language. It happens naturally through meaningful communication. Learning is a conscious process that involves formal instruction and knowledge about the language (grammar rules, vocabulary). Krashen argues that acquisition is more important for developing fluency, while learning mainly acts as a “monitor” or editor to correct language output.

The Monitor Hypothesis
The “monitor” is the internal editor that applies learned grammar rules to correct or modify what you produce in the second language. It works only when you have enough time, focus on form, and know the rules. Over-reliance on the monitor can hinder fluency because it slows down natural communication.

The Natural Order Hypothesis
Language learners acquire grammatical structures in a predictable, natural sequence. This order does not necessarily match the order in which grammar is taught in classrooms. Some structures are acquired early, others later, regardless of explicit instruction.

The Input Hypothesis
Learners improve by understanding “comprehensible input” — language that is slightly beyond their current level (i+1). Exposure to such input helps learners acquire new language naturally. Emphasizes the importance of meaningful communication over explicit grammar teaching.

The Affective Filter Hypothesis
Emotional factors affect language acquisition. A low affective filter (low anxiety, high motivation, confidence) allows more input to be absorbed and acquired. A high affective filter (stress, embarrassment, lack of motivation) blocks input and hinders learning.

Summary Table:
Hypothesis — Key Idea
Acquisition-Learning — Acquisition (subconscious) vs. Learning (conscious)
Monitor — Learned knowledge edits output under certain conditions
Natural Order — Language structures acquired in a natural, predictable sequence
Input — Comprehensible input (i+1) is essential for acquisition
Affective Filter — Emotions can facilitate or block language acquisition

14.  Describe the significance of the monitor model to language learning and acquisition under the following hypothesis:

i.                    Monitor hypothesis

ii.                  Learning – acquisition hypothesis

iii.                Affective filter hypothesis

iv.                Input hypothesis

v.                  Natural order  hypothesis

  Here’s a description of the significance of the Monitor Model to language learning and acquisition under each of the five hypotheses:

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i. Monitor Hypothesis

The significance lies in understanding that conscious learning (grammar rules, corrections) serves as a “monitor” or editor to improve accuracy in language use. However, effective communication relies more on subconscious acquisition than conscious monitoring. Overusing the monitor can slow fluency, so learners should balance accuracy and natural communication.

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ii. Learning–Acquisition Hypothesis

This hypothesis highlights the difference between acquisition (natural, subconscious learning) and learning (formal, conscious study). It stresses that true language fluency comes from acquisition through meaningful interaction, while learning mainly supports by providing knowledge that can edit or polish language output.

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iii. Affective Filter Hypothesis

It emphasizes the emotional factors that impact language acquisition. A low affective filter (low anxiety, motivation, self-confidence) creates a positive environment for language input to be absorbed, making acquisition easier. Conversely, a high affective filter (stress, fear) blocks input and hampers progress.

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iv. Input Hypothesis

The significance here is the importance of comprehensible input that is slightly above the learner’s current level (i+1). Learners progress best when exposed to understandable but challenging language, facilitating natural acquisition without forced memorization or drills.

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v. Natural Order Hypothesis

This hypothesis shows that learners acquire grammatical structures in a predictable sequence, regardless of instruction. Understanding this helps teachers and learners set realistic expectations and focus on meaningful communication instead of rigidly following grammar lessons out of order.

15.  Discuss Krashen’s monitor model on the basis of the following hypothesis:

i.                    The natural order hypothesis

ii.                  The monitor hypothesis

iii.                The effective filter hypothesis

iv.                The learning acquisition distinction

   Here's a discussion of Krashen’s Monitor Model based on the specified hypotheses:

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i. The Natural Order Hypothesis

Krashen’s Natural Order Hypothesis states that language learners acquire grammatical structures in a predictable and natural sequence. This order is consistent across learners regardless of their native language or the order in which grammar is taught. This means some grammatical forms are acquired early while others appear later, suggesting that language instruction should align with this natural sequence rather than forcing learners to learn grammar out of order.

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ii. The Monitor Hypothesis

This hypothesis explains the role of conscious learning in language use. The “monitor” acts as an internal editor that applies learned rules to correct or modify what the learner produces in the second language. However, for the monitor to function effectively, the learner must have time, focus, and knowledge of the rules. While helpful for accuracy, over-reliance on the monitor can impede fluent, natural communication.

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iii. The Affective Filter Hypothesis

The Affective Filter Hypothesis highlights the importance of emotional factors such as motivation, anxiety, and self-confidence in language acquisition. A low affective filter creates an ideal emotional environment, allowing learners to absorb and process language input effectively. A high affective filter, caused by stress or lack of motivation, blocks or limits language input, hindering acquisition.

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iv. The Learning-Acquisition Distinction

Krashen distinguishes between acquisition and learning. Acquisition is a subconscious process that results from meaningful communication and natural exposure to the language, leading to true fluency. Learning, on the other hand, is a conscious process involving formal study of grammar and rules. According to Krashen, acquisition is more important for developing fluent language skills, while learning serves primarily as a tool for monitoring and editing language use.

16.  State Krashen’s hypothesis of language acquisition.

 Krashen’s theory of language acquisition distinguishes between two main processes: acquisition and learning. Acquisition is a subconscious process that occurs naturally when learners engage in meaningful communication, much like how children acquire their first language. In contrast, learning is a conscious process involving formal instruction and explicit knowledge of grammar rules. Krashen stresses that acquisition is crucial for developing true fluency, while learning functions primarily as a “monitor” to edit or correct language use.

The theory also highlights that learners acquire grammatical structures in a natural order, which remains consistent regardless of how language is formally taught. This means that certain structures tend to be acquired earlier, while others are learned later, and this sequence does not necessarily follow classroom instruction.

Another important concept is the role of comprehensible input—language input that is slightly beyond the learner’s current level of competence. According to Krashen, learners progress best when exposed to such input, as it allows them to understand new language in a way that promotes acquisition rather than mere memorization.

Finally, Krashen emphasizes the influence of affective factors on language learning. The affective filter hypothesis suggests that learners who experience low anxiety, high motivation, and strong self-confidence are more receptive to language input. Conversely, negative emotions such as stress or fear can raise the affective filter, blocking the intake of input and hindering acquisition. 

17.  Explain any five learning strategies employed by learners of a second language

  Here are five common learning strategies employed by learners of a second language, explained clearly:

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1. Cognitive Strategies
These involve mental processes that learners use to understand and produce the language. Examples include repeating new words, practicing pronunciation, summarizing information, and using mnemonic devices to remember vocabulary or grammar rules. Cognitive strategies help learners actively process and internalize language.

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2. Metacognitive Strategies
These strategies help learners plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning. For instance, learners might set specific goals, organize study schedules, or self-assess their progress. Metacognitive strategies enable learners to take control of their learning process, making it more efficient and focused.

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3. Social Strategies
Learning a language often requires interaction, so social strategies involve seeking opportunities to communicate with native speakers or fellow learners. This might include asking questions, participating in group discussions, or using language exchange partners to practice speaking and listening skills in real contexts.

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4. Memory-Related Strategies
These strategies focus on techniques to help remember new language items. Examples include using flashcards, associating new words with images or stories, and grouping vocabulary into categories. Effective use of memory strategies improves retention and recall.

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5. Compensation Strategies
When learners don’t know a word or structure, they use compensation strategies to make communication possible. This could involve guessing meaning from context, using gestures, substituting unknown words with similar ones, or paraphrasing. These strategies help maintain communication despite gaps in knowledge.

18.  Describe any five forms of simplification you will encounter in the spoken/written English among of learners of English in Kenya.

  In the English used by learners in Kenya, one common form of simplification is the omission of function words. These are small but important words such as articles, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs that often get left out. For example, learners might say “I go market” instead of “I go to the market.” This omission makes sentences simpler but can sometimes lead to ambiguity or misunderstanding.

Another noticeable form is the use of simplified sentence structures. Learners tend to rely on simple sentences rather than using more complex or compound forms. For instance, they might say “She is my friend. She is tall,” rather than combining the ideas into one sentence like “She is my tall friend.” This simplification helps learners communicate but limits their ability to express more nuanced thoughts.

Learners also frequently use basic vocabulary, choosing common and familiar words over more varied or precise ones. For example, a learner might use “big” instead of “enormous” or “huge.” While this makes communication easier, it often reduces the richness and expressiveness of the language.

Another simplification observed is the regularization of irregular forms. This happens when learners apply regular grammatical rules to irregular verbs or nouns, such as saying “comed” instead of “came” or “runned” instead of “ran.” This approach simplifies learning by creating consistent patterns, but it results in non-standard language usage.

Lastly, learners often avoid complex grammatical constructions such as passive voice, conditional sentences, or perfect tenses. They prefer to use straightforward active sentences like “He eats food” instead of “Food is eaten by him.” This avoidance simplifies communication but restricts the learners’ ability to use a full range of English grammar.

19.  Discuss language learning and acquisition using a behaviourist approach.

  Here’s a discussion of language learning and acquisition using the behaviorist approach:

The behaviorist approach to language learning and acquisition is based on the idea that language is learned through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. According to behaviorists like B.F. Skinner, language acquisition is not an innate ability but rather a behavior shaped by the environment. Learners acquire language by hearing and mimicking the speech they are exposed to, and their attempts at language use are either reinforced or corrected by caregivers, teachers, or peers.

In this approach, stimulus-response mechanisms are central. When a learner hears a word or phrase (the stimulus) and responds correctly by repeating it or using it appropriately, they receive positive reinforcement such as praise or encouragement. This reinforcement strengthens the likelihood of repeating the correct behavior. Conversely, incorrect language use may be ignored or corrected, discouraging those errors.

Behaviorists emphasize the importance of drills and practice in language learning. Through repeated exposure and structured exercises, learners develop habits that form the basis of language proficiency. The role of the teacher is crucial in providing the right stimuli and reinforcement to shape learners’ language behaviors.

However, the behaviorist approach is often criticized for focusing mainly on observable behavior and neglecting the internal mental processes involved in language learning. It doesn’t fully explain how learners create novel sentences or understand abstract grammar rules that they haven’t been explicitly taught.

In summary, the behaviorist approach views language learning as a process of habit formation through imitation and reinforcement, emphasizing external factors over innate cognitive abilities

20.  Define inter-language and describe any four of its characteristics.

 Interlanguage is a linguistic system that learners create as they progress toward full proficiency in a second language. It is a dynamic, evolving language form that combines elements from the learner’s native language (L1) and the target language (L2), reflecting the learner’s current stage of language development. Interlanguage is unique to each learner and serves as a transitional system between their first language and the target language.

Characteristics of Interlanguage include:

·         Systematic but Variable: Interlanguage follows certain rules that are consistent for the learner at a given time, but these rules can change as the learner receives more input and gains experience.

·         Dynamic and Evolving: It is not fixed; interlanguage changes over time as the learner improves their understanding and use of the target language.

·         Influenced by Native Language: Features of the learner’s first language often transfer into the interlanguage, causing errors or patterns that reflect their L1 structures.

·         Influenced by Target Language Input: The learner incorporates new forms and structures from the target language as they are exposed to more input.

·         Marked by Fossilization: Sometimes, certain incorrect forms or rules become permanently part of the learner’s interlanguage, even after extensive exposure, a phenomenon known as fossilization.

·         Unique to the Learner: Each learner’s interlanguage is individual, shaped by their experiences, exposure, and cognitive strategies.

21.  Make a distinction of errors and mistakes in language learning and acquisition.

Errors are systematic and consistent deviations from the rules of the target language that reflect gaps in a learner’s knowledge. They occur because the learner has not yet fully acquired the correct language system, so the errors reveal their current stage of interlanguage development. Since errors are due to a lack of knowledge, learners are usually unaware of them and cannot correct them on their own.

In contrast, mistakes are occasional lapses or slips made by learners who actually know the correct form but fail to use it correctly at a particular moment. Mistakes happen due to factors like fatigue, stress, or inattention. Learners are usually aware of their mistakes and can self-correct them when prompted.

In summary:

• Errors are caused by incomplete or incorrect knowledge of the language system and are consistent.
• Mistakes are caused by performance factors and are random and self-correctable.

 

22.  Explain briefly the concept error analysis.

 Error analysis is the study and examination of the errors learners make while acquiring a second language. It aims to identify, classify, and understand the types and causes of errors to gain insights into the learning process. By analyzing errors, teachers and researchers can determine which areas of the language are most challenging for learners and tailor instruction to address these difficulties.

Unlike simply correcting mistakes, error analysis focuses on the underlying reasons behind errors, helping to reveal the learner’s interlanguage system and how their knowledge evolves over time. It is a valuable tool for improving teaching methods and supporting more effective language acquisition.

23.  Using the classroom experience describe sources of errors in second language learning and acquisition.

  Here’s a description of the sources of errors in second language learning and acquisition based on classroom experience, written in prose with bolded key points:

In the classroom, one common source of errors arises from interference or transfer from the learner’s first language. Learners often apply the rules, sounds, or sentence structures of their native language when speaking or writing in the second language, leading to errors. For example, a learner whose first language has a different word order might produce sentences that sound unnatural in English. This kind of error is called negative transfer.

Another important source of errors is overgeneralization. Learners sometimes apply a rule they have learned too broadly, using it in contexts where it does not apply. For instance, a learner might add “-ed” to irregular verbs to form the past tense, saying “comed” instead of “came.” This shows that learners are actively trying to make sense of the language, even if their hypotheses are not always correct.

Errors can also stem from incomplete or limited knowledge of the language. When learners have only partially learned certain grammar rules or vocabulary, they may produce errors because they lack full understanding. This is often evident in early stages of language acquisition when learners are still building their language system.

In some cases, communication strategies themselves lead to errors. When learners face gaps in their vocabulary or grammar knowledge, they may use guessing, avoidance, or substitution to keep the conversation going. While these strategies help maintain communication, they sometimes result in errors.

Finally, psychological factors such as anxiety, fatigue, or lack of confidence can contribute to errors in the classroom. When learners are stressed or distracted, they may make slips or forget rules they know, resulting in mistakes that affect their language performance.

24.  Using illustration explain how classroom context may be a source of errors.

   Here’s an explanation of how the classroom context may be a source of errors in second language learning, illustrated with examples:

The classroom context can contribute to learners’ errors in several ways. For instance, when a teacher explains a grammar rule but the explanation is unclear or overly complicated, learners might misunderstand and apply the rule incorrectly. Imagine a teacher explaining the past tense but not clarifying irregular verb forms; learners may then overgeneralize and say “goed” instead of “went.” This confusion arises from the way language is presented in the classroom.

Another example is when learners are exposed to limited or artificial language input. Classroom materials often use simplified dialogues or repetitive exercises that don’t reflect natural speech. A student who only practices textbook sentences like “How are you?” and “I am fine” might struggle when faced with more varied real-life conversations, leading to errors in spontaneous communication.

Additionally, the pressure of classroom activities such as timed tests or oral presentations can cause performance anxiety, which leads to slips and mistakes. For example, a learner who knows how to form questions correctly might accidentally say “You like pizza?” instead of “Do you like pizza?” due to nervousness during speaking activities.

Sometimes, classroom rules focus heavily on accuracy and correction, which can make learners hesitant and cause them to overthink their language use. This can result in errors caused by the learner trying too hard to “get it right,” such as pausing excessively or mixing up sentence structures.

In summary, the classroom context—including how language is taught, the nature of materials, emotional pressures, and teaching approaches—can all influence the types and frequency of errors learners make.

25.  Briefly discuss any four types of errors.

 Errors in second language learning can be categorized in various ways, but some common types include interlingual errors, intralingual errors, developmental errors, and fossilized errors.

Interlingual errors result from interference or transfer from the learner’s first language. These errors occur when learners apply rules or patterns from their native language to the target language, leading to mistakes. For example, a learner might say “He has 20 years” instead of “He is 20 years old,” directly translating from their first language.

Intralingual errors arise from the learner’s incomplete knowledge of the target language itself. They happen as learners overgeneralize rules, simplify complex structures, or make mistakes while trying to figure out how the new language works. For example, adding “-ed” to form the past tense of all verbs, saying “goed” instead of “went.”

Developmental errors are natural errors that occur as learners gradually acquire language skills. These errors reflect the learner’s stage in language development and show that they are actively trying to learn and use the language, even if not yet perfectly.

Fossilized errors refer to persistent mistakes that become fixed in a learner’s language use, even after extensive exposure to correct forms. These errors are often resistant to correction and can be due to habits or a lack of motivation to change.

26.  With adequate examples of learner errors explain the concept of interlanguage

  Interlanguage is the evolving linguistic system that a learner creates when learning a second language. It is a unique, intermediate language form that blends elements of the learner’s native language (L1) and the target language (L2). This system reflects the learner’s current knowledge and understanding of the new language, which is constantly changing as they receive more input and practice.

Learners’ errors are a key feature of interlanguage, showing how they experiment with language rules and try to make sense of the second language. For example, a learner might say, “He goed to school yesterday” instead of “He went to school yesterday.” This error reveals that the learner is applying a regular past tense rule (“-ed”) to an irregular verb, indicating their developing understanding of English verb forms.

Another example is “She no like coffee,” instead of “She does not like coffee.” Here, the learner simplifies the negative construction, showing that their interlanguage system hasn’t yet fully incorporated auxiliary verbs for negation.

Sometimes, learners transfer structures from their first language, leading to errors like “I am understand” instead of “I understand.” This suggests that the learner’s interlanguage is influenced by the grammar patterns of their native language, where a similar construction might be acceptable.

Interlanguage is dynamic—these errors will change as learners improve. Over time, with more exposure and practice, learners gradually replace these incorrect forms with the correct target language forms. However, some errors may become fossilized and persist for a long time.

In summary, interlanguage represents the learner’s current stage of language development, and errors provide valuable insight into this evolving system.

27.  Discuss universal grammar as advanced by Noam Chomsky.

  Universal Grammar (UG) is a linguistic theory proposed by Noam Chomsky which suggests that the ability to acquire language is innate to humans. According to Chomsky, all human languages share a common underlying structure, and this “universal grammar” is hardwired into the brain. This innate grammatical framework enables children to learn any language naturally and rapidly, despite the complexity of the task and limited input.

Chomsky argued that while the surface features of languages (such as vocabulary and pronunciation) differ widely, they all follow the same deep structural principles. This explains why children can effortlessly acquire language without explicit instruction—they are born with a set of grammatical rules and constraints that guide their learning.

The theory of Universal Grammar challenges the behaviorist view, which claimed that language is learned purely through imitation and reinforcement. Instead, Chomsky emphasized that exposure to language triggers the innate UG system, which then generates the rules of the specific language being learned.

An important concept within UG is the “poverty of the stimulus”, which points out that children receive incomplete and sometimes ambiguous input, yet still manage to acquire complex grammatical structures. This suggests that the input alone cannot account for language acquisition, reinforcing the idea of an inborn linguistic capacity.

In practical terms, Universal Grammar implies that language learning is not just a matter of memorizing vocabulary or rules but involves activating an internal, universal set of grammatical principles. This theory has influenced fields such as linguistics, psychology, and language education by focusing on the mental structures that underlie all human languages.

28.  Identify the assumptions that contrastive analysis is based on.

Here are the key assumptions that contrastive analysis is based on, which also highlight why it has been both influential and sometimes criticized:

• Language learning difficulties arise mainly from differences between the learner’s first language (L1) and the target language (L2). This means that errors and problems in acquiring a new language can often be predicted by comparing the two languages.
• If a structure in L2 is similar to L1, it will be easy to learn; if it is different, it will be difficult. This assumption suggests that similarities facilitate learning, while differences cause interference or errors.
• Errors made by learners are mostly due to negative transfer from their native language. Learners tend to transfer L1 rules inappropriately to L2, causing mistakes.
• Contrastive analysis can predict and explain learner errors before they occur. By systematically comparing the two languages, teachers and linguists can anticipate which areas will cause trouble.
• Language learning is largely habit formation. This aligns with behaviorist views where errors result from incorrect habits formed due to differences between L1 and L2.

These assumptions formed the basis of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH), which was widely used in the mid-20th century to guide language teaching and materials development. However, later research showed that not all errors can be explained by transfer, leading to the development of other theories.

 

29.  Examine how the psychological factors affect the process of learning the target language.

Here’s an examination of how psychological factors affect the process of learning a target language:

Psychological factors play a crucial role in second language acquisition because they influence a learner’s motivation, confidence, and ability to absorb and use new language input effectively. One key factor is motivation—learners who are highly motivated, whether by personal interest, career goals, or social reasons, tend to put more effort into learning and persist through difficulties, which enhances their success.

Another important factor is anxiety. High levels of anxiety, such as fear of making mistakes or speaking in front of others, can create a mental block that inhibits language processing and production. This can reduce a learner’s willingness to practice and communicate, slowing down their progress.

Self-confidence also impacts language learning. Learners who believe in their ability to succeed are more likely to take risks in using the language, ask questions, and engage actively in learning activities. Low self-confidence, on the other hand, may lead to avoidance of speaking opportunities and reduced practice.

The affective filter, a concept introduced by Stephen Krashen, refers to emotional barriers like stress, boredom, or frustration that can block language input from being processed. When the affective filter is low, learners are more open to acquiring new language naturally.

Other psychological factors include attitude towards the target language and its speakers. Positive attitudes foster greater interest and openness, while negative attitudes can lead to resistance and lack of engagement.

In summary, psychological factors shape how learners approach language learning, how much effort they invest, and how effectively they process language input. Supporting learners emotionally and creating a positive learning environment can significantly enhance language acquisition.  

30.  Language is nothing but a habit brought by stimulus and response. Discuss the above statement in the light of behaviourism as a theory of second acquisition.

   Here’s a discussion of the statement “Language is nothing but a habit brought by stimulus and response” in light of behaviorism as a theory of second language acquisition:

Behaviorism views language learning primarily as a process of habit formation. According to this theory, language is learned through stimulus and response mechanisms, where environmental stimuli trigger responses from the learner. When a learner hears or sees language input (stimulus), they produce a verbal or written output (response). Through repetition and reinforcement, these responses become habits.

In this perspective, learning a second language involves forming correct language habits by practicing the target language repeatedly. Positive reinforcement, such as praise or correction, strengthens the desired responses, helping learners to internalize the language patterns. Errors are seen as bad habits that need to be corrected through further practice and feedback.

Behaviorism emphasizes imitation and drilling as key teaching methods, where learners mimic language models and repeat them until they become automatic. The environment plays a crucial role because language learning is seen as a conditioned behavior shaped by external stimuli.

However, this view has limitations. It does not fully explain the creative and generative aspects of language use, where learners produce novel sentences they have never heard before. Also, behaviorism underestimates the mental processes involved in language learning, such as understanding meaning and internalizing grammar rules.

Despite these criticisms, the behaviorist approach laid important groundwork for language teaching practices, especially in early language labs and drill-based instruction.

31.  Briefly explain the following terms in relation to learning:

i.                    Operant conditioning

ii.                  Reinforcement

 Operant conditioning is a learning process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences. When a learner’s response is followed by a positive outcome, they are more likely to repeat that behavior. Conversely, behaviors followed by negative outcomes tend to decrease. In language learning, operant conditioning explains how learners develop correct language habits through repeated practice and feedback.

Reinforcement refers to any consequence that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior recurring. Positive reinforcement involves giving a reward or praise to encourage a behavior, while negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus when the desired behavior occurs. In second language learning, reinforcement helps motivate learners to use correct language forms and improve their skills.

32.  Outline the four innate linguistic properties of language acquisition device (LAD).

 Here are the four innate linguistic properties of the Language Acquisition Device (LAD):

·         Universal Grammar: LAD contains a set of universal principles and rules common to all human languages, which guide language learning.

·         Rapid Acquisition: LAD enables children to acquire language quickly and efficiently without formal instruction.

·         Rule Generation: LAD allows learners to create and understand new sentences by applying internalized grammatical rules, not just memorizing.

·         Error Detection and Correction: LAD helps learners identify and correct errors by comparing language input with their innate grammatical framework.

33.  What is intra-lingual transfer?

Intra-lingual transfer refers to the process where a learner applies knowledge, rules, or patterns from one part of a language to another part within the same language.

In other words, it involves the transfer of skills or habits within the same language rather than between two different languages (which is called inter-lingual transfer).

More specifically:

• It often occurs when learners overgeneralize or extend rules learned in one context to other contexts incorrectly.
• For example, a learner might apply a regular past tense rule like adding -ed to all verbs, saying “goed” instead of “went.” This is intra-lingual transfer because they are applying a rule from one part of English to another, rather than transferring from a different language.

Summary:

• Intra-lingual transfer = transfer of knowledge within the same language.
• Common in second language acquisition and language learning.
• Can lead to errors due to overgeneralization or incomplete learning.

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34.  Discuss the critical period hypothesis citing evidence from your observation and experiences. What evidence is advanced by scholars who question the critical period hypothesis?

  The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) proposes that there is a limited window during early childhood up to puberty when language acquisition occurs most naturally and effectively. According to this idea, after this critical period, the brain’s ability to learn a language, especially to achieve native-like fluency in pronunciation and grammar, declines sharply. This hypothesis is often linked to the concept of brain plasticity, which is believed to be higher in children and decreases with age.

From my own observation and experience, children who start learning a new language early tend to pick it up quickly and develop near-native pronunciation and grammar skills. In contrast, adults who begin learning the same language later usually achieve proficiency but often retain noticeable accents or make more frequent grammatical errors. This pattern supports the notion that language learning is more effortless and natural during early developmental stages. Additionally, real-life cases such as isolated children deprived of language exposure during early years show significant and sometimes irreversible language difficulties, which further reinforce the importance of early language input.

Despite this, many scholars question the absoluteness of the Critical Period Hypothesis. They point out that many adult learners succeed in acquiring a second language to a very high level of proficiency, sometimes approaching native-like fluency, especially when motivated, immersed in the language environment, and provided with effective learning strategies. This challenges the idea that language learning ability drops off dramatically after puberty.

Moreover, researchers argue that the critical period should be viewed as a sensitive period characterized by a gradual decline in language learning ability rather than a strict cutoff point. Social factors, motivation, cognitive skills, and learning context play substantial roles in language acquisition and can sometimes compensate for the biological decline suggested by CPH. Neuroscientific evidence also reveals that adults retain a degree of brain plasticity sufficient for significant language learning, indicating that age alone does not determine ultimate success in acquiring a language.

In summary, while the Critical Period Hypothesis provides valuable insight into why young children generally acquire languages more easily, the evidence from both my observations and scholarly research suggests that language learning is influenced by a combination of biological, cognitive, and social factors. Age is important but not an absolute barrier, and adult learners can often achieve remarkable language proficiency despite the challenges posed by starting later in life.

35.  Identify the two types of acculturation as given by a Schumann.

  According to John Schumann, the two main types of acculturation in second language acquisition are:

Social Acculturation

This refers to the learner’s level of interaction and integration with the target language community. It includes factors such as social distance, group dynamics, and opportunities for communication. The more socially connected a learner is with native speakers, the more likely they are to acquire the language effectively.

Psychological Acculturation

This involves the learner’s personal attitudes, motivation, and emotional willingness to accept and adapt to the new culture. A learner with a positive attitude toward the target culture and low psychological resistance is more likely to succeed in learning the language.

These two types of acculturation form the basis of Schumann’s Acculturation Model, which explains how social and psychological factors influence second language acquisition.

36.  Discuss the teacher’s role in each of the stages of second language acquisition.

   In second language acquisition (SLA), learners typically progress through several stages as they develop proficiency. At each stage, the teacher's role is essential in guiding, supporting, and scaffolding the learner's language development. The five commonly recognized stages are:

1. Pre-production Stage (Silent Period)

At this early stage, learners may not speak much or at all as they are still absorbing the new language.
Teacher’s role:

• Provide comprehensible input through visuals, gestures, and realia.
• Avoid forcing speech but encourage participation through non-verbal responses (e.g., pointing, nodding).
• Use Total Physical Response (TPR) and other interactive strategies to help students associate meaning with language.
• Create a safe, low-stress environment to build confidence.

2. Early Production Stage

Learners begin to speak using short words or phrases, though with many errors.
Teacher’s role:

• Encourage risk-taking and praise effort over accuracy.
• Ask yes/no and either/or questions to support simple language use.
• Model correct language use naturally without over-correcting.
• Use visuals and real-world context to aid understanding.

3. Speech Emergence Stage

Students can form simple sentences and are starting to express ideas more independently.
Teacher’s role:

• Engage learners in dialogues and group work to increase interaction.
• Expand student responses by rephrasing or elaborating on what they say.
• Introduce academic vocabulary gradually in meaningful contexts.
• Provide sentence frames to support more complex expression.

4. Intermediate Fluency Stage

Learners are more confident in using the language and begin to understand more complex concepts.
Teacher’s role:

• Introduce more advanced grammar and vocabulary through reading and writing tasks.
• Encourage critical thinking and expression of opinions in the target language.
• Correct errors gently and offer constructive feedback to improve accuracy.
• Use content-based instruction to integrate language with subject learning.

5. Advanced Fluency Stage

Learners have near-native proficiency and can perform academic tasks effectively in the second language.
Teacher’s role:

• Challenge students with higher-order thinking tasks, debates, and extended writing.
• Support refinement of language use through feedback on tone, style, and nuance.
• Promote independent learning and continued exposure to authentic language.
• Monitor for subtle language gaps and provide targeted instruction as needed.

In summary, the teacher’s role evolves from providing rich input and emotional support in the early stages to facilitating independence, accuracy, and academic fluency in the later stages. Adapting teaching methods to each stage is key to helping learners progress successfully.

37.  Highlight the major contributions of the following researchers in SLA studies.

a.      Corder (1967)

b.      Selinker (1972)

c.       Richard et all. (1971/858)

d.      Noam Chomsky.

e.       Dulay and Burt (1973/4)

   Here’s a summary highlighting the major contributions of each of the listed researchers in the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA):

a. Corder (1967)

Contribution: Error Analysis and the Role of Errors

• Corder’s 1967 paper, "The Significance of Learners’ Errors," is considered a foundational work in SLA.
• He emphasized that learner errors are not signs of failure but valuable evidence of the language learning process.
• Introduced the idea of errors as part of an interlanguage, showing how learners are actively constructing their own version of the language.
• Laid the groundwork for Error Analysis, a major approach in SLA during the 1970s.

b. Selinker (1972)

Contribution: Interlanguage Theory

• Selinker introduced the term interlanguage, referring to the interim linguistic system that language learners create as they move toward full proficiency.
• He proposed that this system is systematic, dynamic, and influenced by both the first and target languages.
• Identified key processes in SLA: language transfer, transfer of training, strategies of second-language learning, strategies of second-language communication, and overgeneralization.
• His work helped to define SLA as a distinct area of research.

c. Richards et al. (1971/1985)

Contribution: Error Taxonomy and Applied Linguistics

• Jack C. Richards, along with colleagues, developed comprehensive classifications of learner errors, which helped in the diagnosis of difficulties in language learning.
• Their work supported the practical application of SLA theories in curriculum development, language testing, and teaching methodology.
• Helped bridge the gap between theoretical SLA research and language pedagogy.
• Their book “Error Analysis: Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition” became a key text in teacher education.

d. Noam Chomsky

Contribution: Universal Grammar and Language Acquisition Device

• Though primarily a theoretical linguist, Chomsky greatly influenced SLA through his theory of Universal Grammar (UG).
• Proposed that humans are born with an innate language faculty (the Language Acquisition Device, or LAD).
• Argued that language learning is driven not just by imitation or conditioning, but by an inborn ability to generate and interpret rules.
• His ideas sparked debates on the role of UG in second language acquisition, influencing research on the extent to which UG is accessible in adult learners.

e. Dulay and Burt (1973/1974)

Contribution: Natural Order Hypothesis and Creative Construction

• Conducted large-scale studies on child second language learners and found that they acquired certain grammatical structures in a predictable order, regardless of their first language.
• Introduced the Natural Order Hypothesis, suggesting that some aspects of language are acquired in a universal sequence.
• Also proposed the Creative Construction Hypothesis, which claims that learners actively construct language rules rather than simply copying input.
• Their work supported the view that second language acquisition parallels first language acquisition in many ways.